Terrorism is one of the main aspects that jeopardize national security. The core focus of many nations worldwide is combating terrorism, whether cross-border or not. Despite the extensive efforts by scholars to develop a proper definition of transnational terrorism, there is little consensus regarding the most effective definition for this type of terrorism. Stapley (2014) contends that c ontroversies in the demarcations occur due to various aspects such as the factors that drive this kind of terrorism, its purpose, and victims, among others. In simple terms, transnational terrorism involves perpetrators and victims from two or more nations. To complement the previous statement, this type of terrorism can be best explained when an attack is organized in one country and executed in the other. Transnational terrorism adversely affects the economic, social political, environmental, and technological environments of the countries involved.
Economic Threats and Risks
Transnational terrorism puts the economic stability and growth of the countries involved at high risk. For instance, foreign investors are reluctant to invest in states that have been recently attacked, which impedes economic growth. Previous al-Qaida attacks on US soil, for example, inhibited investors from investing in the US through foreign direct investment. This is due to the imminent threat of huge losses that would occasion a terrorist attack. Moreover, investors are also unwilling to capitalize in countries which the terrorists are suspected to come from, due to the criticality of an excellent corporate image. Additionally, foreign investors are unable to acquire maximum returns on their investments in the event of a transnational terrorist attack. Particularly, countries which are reliant on FDI for economic expansion experience somewhat sluggish economic growth as a result of the tremendous loss in the capital nation that occasions a terrorist attack.
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In addition, transnational terrorism augments the costs of engaging in business across domestic borders. For example, shippers have to pay higher shipment costs and are forced to purchase insurance covers to protect their vehicles from probable damages that may occur in the ports of terrorism-prone nations. Concurrently, these costs are transferred to customers in the form of higher prices, which in turn lead to a decline in not only exports but the imports of the affected countries. In developing nations such as the US, transnational terrorism significantly inhibits trade with other nations. According to Bandyopadhyay, Sandler, & Younas (2018), goods that are exported by one nation and exported by the other are at heightened risk when it comes to transportation in both states. Concurrently, higher trade costs and prices are experienced, which is a significant trade inhibitor. Therefore, the economies of the countries involved are significantly affected by transnational terrorist attacks.
Social-Political Threats and Risks
Transnational terrorism also influences the sociopolitical environment of the concerned nations. One of the most adverse effects of this heinous act is a decrease in employment opportunities, mostly in the attacked country. As a social issue, the unavailability of employment affects the lives of citizens ( Sandler, 2015) . Furthermore, terrorist attacks decrease not only employment opportunities, but also the living standards of citizens in the affected state. In addition, individuals are displaced and forced to leave their homes for safety and security. Concurrently, state governments develop educational and employment policies, for instance, to provide assistance to its poverty-stricken citizens.
Political instability is also another core impact of transnational terrorism. When countries are attacked by terrorists, national safety is jeopardized, and political aspirants and candidates use the issue to prove the ineffectiveness of various state representatives such as the president and the political party that he/she represents. Citizens no longer put their confidence on their leaders, and a vast number of protests occur. Additionally, in cases where the suspects of an attack come from a particular or religion such as Muslim, more demonstrations arise and the risk of extremists attacks increase ( Williams, Koch, & Smith, 2013 ). Terrorism results in overheated security debates which bridge a considerable gap between various political leaders, who then incite civilians, heightening political instability.
Environmental Threats and Risks
Terrorist attacks cause immense environmental damage. Most explosives are composed of asbestos and fibrous gas, among other toxic substances. The substances are not only hazardous to human beings but elements of the eco-system such as flora and fauna ( Al-Anezy, 2015). Moreover, these attacks outcome the destruction of trees and other vegetation. As a result, animal habitats are obliterated, and the quality of animal and plant life jeopardized. In addition, the substances are also absorbed into the air and later transformed into rain, which not only corrodes roofs but also pollutes water sources.
Technological Threats and Risks
In the event of a terrorist attack, a wide range of technological infrastructures are at high risk of being destroyed. More advanced technologies have emerged in the modern society. Companies spend considerable amounts of money funding these critical resources. Hence, imminent terrorist attacks result in the potential loss of not only valuable technological equipment but vast amounts of money as well. Moreover, the levels of statewide insecurity increase due to the fact that terrorists employ these technologies to plan, communicate, and execute their attacks.
Major Actors Involved
States
States are highly involved in transnational terrorism. Recent studies conducted on the issue confirm that states may sponsor terrorist activities to dwindle the bargaining power and political stability of other nations. Failing countries such as Somalia, and Afghanistan, among others, are referred to as incubators of terrorism. Studies focus on identifying the relationship between failed nations and transnational terrorism. Apparently, failing states face a lot of challenges in terms of their executive authority. As a result, a significant lack of confidence in a nations ability to assert unrivaled power occurs. In addition, these states also lack the capacity to control their national borders and face an imminent threat of secession, and civil war, which forces them to prove themselves as strong to dominant nations by launching terrorist attacks before it is done to them. Other states may also sponsor terrorist activities in other countries that have terrorist groups and experienced terrorists so that any direct ties to them after an attack is launched is not found when the offense is executed.
Non-governmental Organizations
Non-governmental organizations have been on the receiving end of transnational terrorist attacks. Hence, they are highly involved in cross-border terrorist attacks. Most NGOs are targeted by terrorists due to the perception that they are associated with a political entity. The association between the NGO and the targeted nation may not necessarily exist. For instance, a non-governmental organization which is located in the US may be focused even if it is a multinational corporation, just because its location makes it seem as if there is an association between it and a specific political entity. According to Stapley (2014), t his can be best demonstrated by the attacks executed by the National Liberation Army in 1983. In the attacks, the organization launched its attacks on all the NGOs locates in Bucaramanga, US. NGOs have therefore been targeted by transnational terrorists for a number of decades now.
Non-Profit Organizations
Non-profit organizations are no exception when it comes to being involved with transnational terrorism. Today, NPOs finance terrorism, which has become an issue of concern. NPOs have become extremely susceptible to abuse. Terrorist organizations have been able to acquire the funds they require to execute their plans by threatening NPOs. More robust laws and regulations against NPOs terrorist abuse are critical for protecting these organizations from their forced associations with transnational terrorists.
Theories
Realists
Realists would argue that violence is convenient for the preservation of power. Based on the theory of realism, no limits are imposed on the execution of power ( Sieckelinck, Kaulingfreks, & De Winter, 2015 ). Additionally, realists would also contend that no considerations whatsoever should be made in matters pertaining to cruelty, justice or otherwise, or even humanity ( Campbell, 2014) , among others. Based on the view of this particular group of people, terrorism is an effective justification for the preservation of power. It is the right of states and extremists’ groups to terrorize others if their power and ways of life are threatened.
Liberalist s
One of the most prolific liberalists in human history is Kant. Based on this perspective, war should be prevented at all costs. According to Deudney & Ikenberry (2017), Kant contends that war has always been selected as a means of achieving its ultimate goal. The final outcomes of war are the division and lack of unity among human beings. Liberalists argue that terrorism should be prohibited due to its disruption of peace and unity.
Constructivists
Constructivists perceive terrorism as a social construction. Based on the 9/11 attacks, most traditional scholars find it hard to understand the role of terrorism or anything dealing with Islamic ideas. The different rationalist methods such as liberalism and realism do not have a lot to contribute to the understanding of terrorism and how the attacks are motivated by religious convictions. It is important to understand that constructivism plays a big role in analyzing terrorism. This approach takes a two-pronged theory in looking at how terrorism provides itself to the constructivist understanding and also evaluating different ways in which constructivism is better related to traditional approaches. The first understanding lies with the significant nature of terrorism according to this theory as being a social construct, this is because it provides itself to constructivist understanding.
References
Al-Anezy, E. (2015). The Damning Effect of Terrorism on the Environment: Towards A Sustainable International Legal Framework. IIUM Law Journal , 23 (2).
Bandyopadhyay, S., Sandler, T., & Younas, J. (2018). Trade and terrorism: A disaggregated approach. Journal of Peace Research , 55 (5), 656-670.
Campbell, B. (2014). Realist or Liberal? Theoretical Interpretations of the Obama Administration’s Counterterrorism Strategy. Međunarodne studije: časopis za međunarodne odnose, vanjsku politiku i diplomaciju , 14 (2), 48-48.
Deudney, D., & Ikenberry, G. J. (2017). Realism, Liberalism and the Iraq War. Survival , 59 (4), 7-26.
Sandler, T. (2015). Terrorism and counterterrorism: an overview. Oxford Economic Papers , 67 (1), 1-20.
Sieckelinck, S., Kaulingfreks, F., & De Winter, M. (2015). Neither villains nor victims: towards an educational perspective on radicalisation. British Journal of Educational Studies , 63 (3), 329-343.
Stapley, C. S. (2014). Terrorist attacks on non-governmental organizations. Open Journal of Political Science , 4 (04), 265.
Williams, L. K., Koch, M. T., & Smith, J. M. (2013). The political consequences of terrorism: Terror events, casualties, and government duration. International Studies Perspectives , 14 (3), 343-361.
