Understanding Women of Color in Higher Education

Women of color experience numerous challenges in acquiring higher educationand ascending to administrative and leadership positions. The oppression and discrimination they experience are related to inequalities in gender, race, class, and identity. The literature review of fifteen articles helps to provide insight into the experiences of women of color, either as students or faculty in higher education institutions. The literature review proves that women of color experience the consequences of intersectionality, particularly in predominantly white institutions, but are still vigilant in navigating through the challenges to achieve educational and career progression.

Experiences of Women of Women Color in Predominantly White Institutions

Intersectionality is an important consideration to understand the challenges that women of color experience in higher education. Moore (2017) explained that the intersectionality construct provides a concept for understanding the complexities of women of color occupying leadership positions in the academy experience by being privileged and marginalized. Intersectionality also helps to understand the link between power relations and prejudice by society. Bartman (2015) added that the population of women of color in higher learning institutions is still low. The lack of a critical mass may affect their engagements and sense of belonging. The gender gap between men and women of color in higher institutions also limits the women's chances of getting married by people with similar educational levels. The limited number of women of color in faculties also influences the students' experiences within the institutions. Bartman (2015) explained that the three main issues women of color face in higher education include multiple marginalized identities, the influence of the gender gap, and the inadequacy of black faculties. The multiple oppressions can be understood through intersectionality, where women of color can only be fully addressed by focusing on the dual oppression that the students face by being both Black and women at the same time. 

Black women continue to face oppression characterized by the intersection of gender, class, and race. Oppression directed to Black women in the United States has remained heavily institutionalized. Other factors such as culture and patriarchy have positioned them in an awkward state as women rights were actualized. Walkington (2017) explained that not much has changed about the position of Black women students and faculty since they were first allowed to pursue higher education. Black women in faculty positions continue to experience challenges associated with the race-specific allocation of positions that are not considered academic, such as mentorship and teaching assistantship. Such positions leave Black students demotivated and exhausted because they have limited access to faculties and mentors that understand their unique needs and experiences. The students continue to experience multiple oppressions, including racism, marginalization, and isolation. They also have limited networking, funding, and research opportunities that put them at risk of not completing their graduate education. The sentiments were echoed by Showunmi (2020) and Griffin (2019).Alexander and Hermann (2016) added that women of color encounter racial and gender oppression within the STEM workforce daily, which affects their retention into their careers. The experiences of women of color in the STEM workforce and other predominantly white institutions demonstrate the role of intersectionality in professional development.

Barriers to Career Developments

Discriminative cultures in higher learning institutions hinder women of color from progressing in their careers and academics. Carroll (2017) used the Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Institutional Betrayal Theory to understand women of color's experiences. From their experiences, women of color must be able to achieve growth and development in American research and teaching institutions. The women also play an important role in meeting the demands of new students within higher educations. Institutional culture is an essential determinant of women of color's experiences in the campuses that of White, meritocratic and male-dominated institutions. Cultures that value diversity promote the optimization of talents. Showunmi (2020) explored Black and minority women's experiences in employment within the UK and revealed that an unfriendly organizational culture and poor leadership was a major challenge in the workplace that led the women to abandon their own culture and get assimilated into the dominant culture within the organization. The culture in higher learning institutions needs to focus more on appreciating the diversity of talent and the talents that the women of color bring to their faculties, learning, and work environments.

Like students, women of color in faculties also experience high levels of sexism and racism. Ramos and Yi (2020) pointed out that doctoral women of color experience significant challenges maneuvering the sexism and racism within the academic space by developing resilience and addressing the challenges. Within their work environments, women of color experience sexism and racism, as demonstrated by the perceptions of incapability and deficiencies in achieving success within the academy. The group also has to deal with the negative judgments of non-adherence to gendered expectations and norms, expectations to adhere to the gender-related roles and norms, working with little or no compensation, acceptance of eroticization, tokenization, and sexualization as a woman of color within the academy. Women of color are often aware of the oppressive systems, agencies, and communities they work with (Ramos & Yi, 2020). Women of color who want to succeed in their careers must be prepared to deal with the micro aggressions posed by gender, race, and class inequalities. 

Unfriendly work environments and unsupportive colleagues hinder the progression of women of color in their educational and professional pathways. Although gender rights have been initiated and protected under the law, an intersection of gender and race inconveniences Black women. Showunmi (2020) explained that Black and minority women experience a wide range of challenges in their attempts to take up various leadership roles in various sectors in the United Kingdom due to their gender, race, identity, and class. The women also explained that they experienced a lot of criticism from colleagues whose views were marred by stereotypes and prejudice against women. The experiences alter the confidence to take up leadership roles and seek support from their managers who were not culturally sensitive to the diverse team’s needs. The black and minority women often lack mentorship due to the inappropriate leadership styles of their White managers. Similarly, Hannum et al. (2015) explained that women of color often have to deal with barriers in obtaining leadership opportunities because they experience high levels of criticism and scrutiny from their white colleagues and managers. The challenges of poor leadership, management, and support systems in learning institutions prevent women from successfully progressing to leadership roles.

The colonial and historical influences continue to hinder progression towards equality in the learning institutions. Griffin (2019) posited that Black women students are always protesting to demand an increase in faculty of color since the 1960s, a situation that is yet to change. Complaints of marginalization and racism back up the protests. Students' complaints indicate that the professoriate and demographics are yet to change as the men and women of color continue to experience sexism and racism in their attempts to enter into a profession within the faculty. The oppression is still rampant despite the large numbers of men and women of color completing Doctoral degrees. Institutions have not also invested their resources and efforts in addressing the under-representation of Black men and women in faculties. 

Women of Color In The Face of Predominantly White Institutions

The intersections of gender, race, and leadership are often intertwined with organizational environments. Hotchkins (2017) explained that administrators and managers must consider how institutional climates merge with the intersectional identities of Black women and provide them with adequate support to expose gender-radicalized aggressions and micro-aggressions. Blacks women's success significantly depends on how predominantly white institutions nurture the Black women leaders and how the organizational advisors and administrators achieve the nurturing process. Most of the Black women view Whiteness as a thread of gender-related battle fatigue. It is difficult for women of color to thrive in environments characterized byradicalized gender viewpoints.

Despite the oppression the women experience in predominantly white institutions, women play an important role in the mentorship and development of minority students. Delgado and Allen (2019) explained that women of color in faculty positions increase the availability of cultural mediators and translators and role models. They can take up multiple responsibilities and perform well in their work and draw strength from their culture. Ong et al. (2020) added that women of color could navigate the challenges posed by gender and racial inequalities in engineering education. The women develop resilience by utilizing their cultural assets to navigate the barriers posed by the dominant culture and take up leadership and administrative positions. Succeeding in the male and white-dominated fields requires vigilance, patience, and consistency. 

Predominantly white institutions have a role to play in supporting women of color throughout their work or studies. Squire (2017) explained that the faculty of color perceives universities and higher learning institutions as predominantly embedded in the historical ideologies of racism, colonialism, white supremacy, and oppression of minorities. When women of color take up administrative roles, they can help accommodate a diverse community in the university matters and establish a more inclusive and diverse campus culture.

Recommendations for Improvement

Appropriate leadership styles are the most effective strategies for improving women of color in higher education. Hotchkins(2017) recommended holistic and buffered leadership as strategies for developing adaptability to alleviate gender-related racial battle fatigue. Holistic leadership entails using the leadership role to create a link between participants and the perceived sources of gender and non-racial micro aggressions through bonding. Buffered leadership entails creating a gap between the participants and the perceived source of racial and gender oppression through avoidance. Mainah and Perkins (2015) added that providing women of color with advancement opportunities within the faculty, access to informal networks, the demystification of white supremacy, and male dominance is instrumental in improving racial and gender equality. Bartman (2015) recommended that important strategies to improve the performance and address the challenges that women of color experience in higher education include Black Sororities, mentoring, and contextual counseling. Students' educational advancements and role modeling within the university system can greatly improve by promoting racial and gender equality, social inclusion, identification of best talent, and innovation. The strategies are instrumental in realizing the best outcomes in higher education.

Women who have already navigated to leadership and administrative positions should mentor and be role models for younger and fewer experienced counterparts. Ramos and Yi (2020) explained that women of color have an important role in supporting fellow women in developing resilience to the highly oppressive systems and communities. The researchers explained that doctoral women address the challenges of sexism and racism by developing concrete aspirations and long-term goals, adequate awareness about interlocking oppressive systems that define their academic spaces and experiences, commitment to empowering communities through educational empowerment, and the support from their academic and personal networks.Hannum et al. (2015) added that women of color get their motivation from the inclination to participate in policy development, make a difference, and advocate for their counterparts that are often excluded from strategic decisions and conversations.Women's efforts in positions that influence policy and their continued vigilance to alleviate the discrimination, stereotyping, prejudice, and other forms of inequalities that women of color experience are incredible. 

Learning institutions also have an essential role in supporting all students to achieve academic success, persistence, and psychological well-being regardless of their race or gender. Higher learning institutions can achieve the obligation of supporting their students by increasing their structural and compositional diversity. The institutions should invest in meeting students' diverse needs through the establishment and enactment of diversity values, providing the students' access to counter spaces, providing a well-structured intergroup dialogue, and improving students and staff's cultural competency. The interventions are critical in improving women of color's experiences in predominantly white institutions (Vaccaro et al., 2019). Ong et al. (2020) added that institutions should establish a culture that generates a sense of belonging and structural and social support for women of color to increase resilience and self-efficacy in dealing with the racial and gender prejudice they experience. The higher learning institutions need to acknowledge the challenges faced by women of color and develop appropriate strategies to address them. 

Conclusion

The articles confirm that women of color experience racial, gender, identity, and class discrimination as faculties and students in higher learning institutions. Most of the learning institutions are predominantly white but are still vigilant in navigating through the challenges to achieve educational and career progression. The women in positions of authority are important mentors of younger and less experienced women of color and play an instrumental role in research, writing, and teaching. Improving equality among women of color is the responsibility of women of color in leadership positions and learning institutions.

References

Alexander, Q. R., & Hermann, M. A. (2016). African-American women’s experiences in graduate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education at a predominantly white university: A qualitative investigation.  Journal of Diversity in Higher Education ,  9 (4), 307. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039705

Bartman, C. C. (2015). African American women in higher education: Issues and support strategies. College Student Affairs Leadership, 2 (2), 39-50. https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=csal

Carroll, D. (2017). Faculty women of color micro-invalidations at white research institutions: A case of intersectionality of institutional betrayal and critical race theory.  Administrative Issues Journalist ,  7 (1).  https://doi.org/10.5929/2017.7.1.2

Delgado, M. Y., & Allen, O. T. (2019). Case studies of women of color leading community colleges in Texas: Navigating the leadership pipeline through mentoring and culture.  Community College Journal of Research and Practice ,  43 (10-11), 718-729. https://doi.org/10.1080/10668926.2019.1600609

Griffin, K. A. (2019). Institutional barriers, strategies, and benefits to increasing the representation of women and men of color in the professoriate. Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research, 1-73. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11743-6_4-1

Hannum, K. M., Muhly, S. M., Shockley-Zalabak, P. S., & White, J. S. (2015). Women leaders within higher education in the United States: Supports, barriers, and experiences of being a senior leader.  Advancing Women in Leadership Journal ,  35 , 65-75.https://doi.org/10.18738/awl.v35i0.129

Hotchkins, B. (2017). Black women students at predominantly white universities: Narratives of identity politics, well-being and leadership mobility.  NASPA Journal About Women in Higher Education ,  10 (2), 144-155.  https://doi.org/10.1080/19407882.2017.1326943

Mainah, F., & Perkins, V. (2015). Challenges facing female leaders of color in US higher education.  International Journal of African Development ,  2 (2), 5-13. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/144152667.pdf

Moore, M. R. (2017). Women of color in the Academy: Navigating multiple intersections and multiple hierarchies.  Social Problems ,  64 (2), 200-205.  https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spx009

Ong, M., Jaumot‐Pascual, N., & Ko, L. T. (2020). Research literature on women of color in undergraduate engineering education: A systematic thematic synthesis. Journal of Engineering Education, 109 (3), 581-615. https://doi.org/10.1002/jee.20345

Ramos, D. M., & Yi, V. (2020). Doctoral women of color coping with racism and sexism in the academy.  International Journal of Doctoral Studies ,  15 , 135-158.  https://doi.org/10.28945/4508

Showunmi, V. (2020). The importance of intersectionality in higher education and educational leadership research.  Journal of Higher Education Policy And Leadership Studies ,  1 (1), 46-63.  https://doi.org/10.29252/johepal.1.1.46

Squire, D. (2017). The vacuous rhetoric of diversity: Exploring how institutional responses to national racial incidences effect faculty of color perceptions of university commitment to diversity.  International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 30 (8), 728–745.  https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2017.1350294

Vaccaro, A., Swanson, H. J., Marcotte, M. A., & Newman, B. M. (2019). Insights into the Sense of Belonging from Women of Color: Interconnections of Cultural Competence, Expectations, Institutional Diversity, and Counterspaces .  JCSCORE ,  5 (2), 32-65. https://doi.org/10.15763/issn.2642-2387.2019.5.2.32-65

Walkington, L. (2017). How far have we really come? Black women faculty and graduate students’ experiences in higher education.  Humboldt Journal of Social Relations ,  39 , 51-65. https://digitalcommons.humboldt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1022&context=hjsr

Authors	Aim/Purpose	Method/ Design	Target population	Key findings	Call for future research or practice
Alexander & Hermann (2016)	To examine the experiences of African American women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) graduate programs at 1 predominantly White university (PWU) in the South	Qualitative phenomenological study	African American women in (STEM) graduate programs at 1 predominantly White university (PWU) in the South	The researchers found that participantsexperienced racial micro aggressions, low self-efficacy, and a lack of institutionalsupport while pursuing STEM graduate degrees at this PWU	The intersection of gender and racereplication Replication of this study with larger samples and across thedifferent geographic regions of the United Statesat PWUs with larger African American graduatestudent populations might reveal a more comprehensive landscape of the experiences of AfricanAmerican women in STEM graduate programs at PWUs.
Bartman (2015)	To examine the current status of African American women students in higher education and recommendations to support their continued success.	Literature review	African American Women in Higher Education	Three specific and innovative strategies - Black sorority engagement, cross-cultural mentoring, and population specific counselling techniques are recommended to support the retention, persistence and degree attainment of African American Women.	Future research should focus on the need for continued and focused intervention strategies in order to build further success on the achievements that these students have already realized.
Carroll (2017)	To present a personal narrative regarding the micro-invalidations that Faculty Women of Color face at America’s White research institutions	Case study using Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Institutional Betrayal Theory	Case study ofaSoutheastern urban research institution	Colleges must be proactive in destroying the systemic culture that sustains racist and betrayal practices. They must forge the transition to a climate of talent, inclusion, and respect for difference, a transition that begins with one student and one faculty member at a time.	Future research should focus on how change must be sustained within a climate that nurtures and values diverse learners, faculty, and professional staff, all working and learning within an inclusive climate that embraces Faculty Women of Color and promotes their academic talents to their fullest
Delgado& Allen (2019).	Examined the personal and professional experiences of women of color who currently hold higher-level administrative positions at a Texas community college district and the role that Bicultural Socialization Theory played in their pathway to the leadership pipeline	qualitative, multi-site, case study	Women of color who currently hold higher-level administrative positions at a Texas community college district	The findings revealed that women of color navigated home and work culture due to their ability to balance multiple responsibilities required at home and the responsibilities required by their leadership roles. The women of color were successful because they had the ability to drawn upon their minority culture towards a successful bicultural pathway.	The researchers recommended that future research should focus on;  Difference among cultural mediators at a four-year and the mediators at the community college system.  Experiences of Women of Color administrators’ at other community college districts to explore the emergence of cultural mediators in their leadership pathway. Perspectives of cultural translators who mentor Women of Color administrators to understand how they approach mentorship and career advising.  Emotional and psychological responses Women of Color experience when expected to “perform” according to the mainstream culture. best strategies for mentoring Women of Color emerging leaders Unique experiences of each ethnic group to understand how they specifically rely upon their culture to achieve success.  Conduct ethnographic studies to fully understand how community colleges strive to create a culturally inclusive campus for staff and administrators.
Griffin (2019)	To offer guidance to scholars, faculty, practitioners, and institutional leaders, presenting insights into the complexities associated with increasing faculty diversity	Literature Review	Women and Men of Color in the Professoriate	The findings revealed that institutional structures, policies, and interactions with faculty colleagues and students shapeaccess, recruitment, and retention in the professoriate, focusing on the experiences of women and men of colour. A failure to address these challenges has negative implications for teaching, learning, and knowledge generation. Women and men of color uniquely contribute to the mission and goals of US higher education.	Future research should focus on:  Faculty encounters with institutional barriers based on their multiple intersecting identities and exposure to various forms of identity-based oppression.  Recruiting more racially and ethnically diverse samples and more directly engage how sexism and racism shape the lives of faculty and the extent to which they can make use of family friendly policies, how teaching loads are allocated, and the time and emotional labor they invest in service. Determining whether and how phenomena look different when comparing the experiences of men and women.
Hannum, Muhly, Shockley-Zalabak, & White (2015)	To explore thejourneyof women leaders into senior leadership roles and their experience of being a leader in higher education today	Qualitative study	Women at the senior-most levels of institutions of higher education	The findings indicate that leadership development initiatives to include stories from women who are comfortable with having and using authority, having role models and sharing more about the intellectual excitement in the broad scope of senior leadership roles.	Future research should document positive aspects of being in a leadership role in order to provide balanced perspective on the experiences of being a senior leader and a woman in higher education.
Hotchkins (2017)	To understand the experiences of Black women students at predominantly white universities	Narrative inquiry study	Black women students at predominantly White Universities	The findingsindicated that Participants spoke of avoiding genderracialized aggression by using buffered leadership to create proximal distance between themselves and adverse racial interactions with White males and holistic leadership to describe nuanced Black womanhood to White women peers to dismantle stereotypes and increase rapport.	Administrators need to focus on how institutional climates converge with intersectional identities of Black women when providing supports that could potentially expose them to racial micro aggressions and gender-radicalized aggressions
Mainah& Perkins (2015).	To investigates the phenomena of the growing numbers of women of color in top positions, with the aim of debunking the myth of the invisibility of black women in leadership positions in higher education	Literature review	Female Leaders of Color in US Higher Education	The findings indicate that although women in the US earn the majority of postsecondary degrees and 26.4% of college presidents are women, with 4.5% of them being women of color, women still have a long way to go before they have equal status with men in university leadership positions.	When social inclusion, gender and racial equality, and recognition of best talent and best performance are the accepted academic standard and business practices, the diverse and innovative outcomes from these practices will benefit the advancement of student education and role modeling through the university system, producing a global academic community whose primary focus is on the best results and solutions for higher education.
Moore (2017)	To consider how women of color in the academy navigate multiple intersections and multiple hierarchies.	Literature review	women of color in the academy	The findings reveal that multiple hierarchies that women of colourexperience in the academy and the multiple positions they occupy within those hierarchies, have complexities	The findings reveal that questioning the structures instead of simply trying to succeed within them and criticize the exclusion of women of color will help dismantle the hierarchies within faculty ranks
Ong, Jaumot‐Pascual, & Ko (2020)	To determine what influences the experiences, participation, and advancement of women of color in undergraduate engineering education.	qualitative, mixed‐methods, and quantitative methodologies	Women of color	Institutions should take responsibility for generating a sense of belonging for women of color and provide social and structural supports that increase self‐efficacy, address social pain, and improve retention.	More research is required focusing on women of color and women of color in engineering
Ramos &Yi (2020)	To examine the racist and sexist experiences of doctoral women of color in the academy.	qualitative study	Doctoral women of color	Participants’ experiences with racism and sexism included perceptions as deficient and incapable of succeeding in the academy, judgments for not adhering to gendered norms and expectations, and expectations to fulfill gendered norms and roles, to labor without compensation, and to accept sexualization, exoticization, and tokenization as a woman of color in the academy. Their responses to these incidents ranged from defensive to controlled to direct	Future research should focus on tangible ways to support doctoral women of color as they grapple with the multiple systems of domination that threaten their success in education, which is intertwined with success in other aspects of society.
Showunmi (2020)	To explore the importance of intersectionality in higher education and educational leadership research	Grounded Theory	Bangladeshi and Pakistani women living and working in the UK	The findingsrevealedconsiderabledifficulties and disappointment among Black Minority and Ethnic (BME) women in their role as leaders across a range of sectors of employment in the UK including racial prejudice and discrimination, poor organisationalculture, unfriendly employers and inappropriate leadership style.	Future research should focus on exploringthe leadership positions of BME leaders and the barriers that potentially stop BME women leaders moving ahead as fast as their female and male counterparts.
Squire (2017)	To examines how university responses to national racial incidences such as the police brutality affect how faculty of color in one discipline understand the university’s commitment to diversity and ultimately how it affects the faculty experience	Critical Race Methodological tradition	faculty of color at Predominantly White Institutions (PWI) in the United States	The researcher found that faculty of colourbelieved that the community is an important component of life and that the universities are institutions historically embedded in the fabric of the country and as such have ties to its racist, colonial, and White supremacist founding.	Future efforts should focus reconceptualisingthe definition of community in order to include a broader scope of who is included in community and so that the neighbouringcommunity is engaged in university matters.
Walkington (2017)	To conduct a critical overview of the sociological research on black women's experiences as graduate students and faculty in higher education	Literature review	Black Women Faculty and Graduate Students’	The findings indicate that black women faculty and graduate students in higher education still face multiple oppressions at the intersections of race, gender, and class that leave them exhausted, and have limited access to mentors who can understand their unique experiences and insights, and help move them toward research grants, fulltime faculty appointments, and achieving tenure. Black women graduate students still face isolation and marginalization, racism and eroticization, microagressions, have fewer funding, research, and network opportunities than their white and male counterparts, and risk dropping out of graduate programs.	Future research should focus on: Identify institutional and policy level strategies for all black women faculty and graduate students in higher education Strategies being employed and whether they are effective in improving experiences for black women faculty and graduate students. How power dynamics at the intersections of race, class, and gender continue to shape and impact black women faculty and graduate student experiences within higher education
Vaccaro, Swanson, Marcotte &Newman(2019)	Insight into the development of belonging for Women of Color during their first  semester at a predominately white university.	Grounded theory	Women of color in a predominantly White University	Researchers found that increased compositional and structural diversity, meeting students’ diversity expectations through enactment of espoused diversity values, providing access to  counterspaces, offering structure d intergroup dialogue, and fostering cultural  competency positively shape the complex belonging trajectories  of Women of Color at predominately white institutions	Future research should focus on: How emergent categories (cultural competency, unmet expectations, compositional and structural diversity, counterspaces) interact with one another to influence belonging. To determine if these findings are transferrable to other Women of Color and/or minority populations at other PWIs.