Wastewater and Sewage Treatment

Waterborne-related illnesses continue to be a leading cause of mortality and morbidity, especially among children. These diseases are spread by various agents, referred to as outbreak agents, and include bacterial agents, chemical agents, parasitic agents, and viral agents contained in contaminated water. Contaminated water is usually a result of poorly treated water, natural disasters, and wastewater. There exist four broad stratifications of transmission routes for water-related illnesses, each with various prevention measures. Based on the ways of transmission, water-related diseases may be water-washed, water-related insect vectors, water-based and water-borne. Discussed herein are water-borne diseases transmitted when ingestion of water contaminated with pathogens occurs, consequently causing various diseases among them cholera, cryptosporidiosis, and Legionnaires' Disease (Camerata, 2006). Cholera, an epidemic disease, is among the most feared waterborne disease owing to its severity. Though rare in the industrialized world in the last century, it is still common elsewhere in the world including sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian subcontinent. Despite being a life-threatening disease, cholera can be treated and prevented easily. Cholera is caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholera, a comma-shaped aerobic bacillus. Cholera may be contracted from the ingestion of water or food contaminated with the cholera bacterium. The source of contamination for the food or water is usually an infected person's feces. Following contraction, severe dehydration as a result of diarrhea may cause death within hours of infection (Macy & Quick, 2015). To prevent cholera, simple precautions may be taken. The epidemic outbreak of cholera in society is indicative of poor food hygiene, unsafe drinking water, and unhygienic disposal of human feces. Healthy food hygiene necessitates thorough cooking and consumption while still hot, and avoiding raw vegetables and fruits vegetables unless thoroughly washed and peeled. Disposal of human feces should be in areas where there's no risk of its leakage to contaminate water and food as well as washing hands after defecation. Drinking water should be treated appropriately or boiled before drinking (Camerata, 2006) 

Cryptosporidiosis, another water-borne disease, is caused by the parasite Cryptosporidium parvum. It is particularly catastrophic to individuals whose immune systems are compromised, such as HIV-positive persons and those with AIDS. Cryptosporidium lives in the intestine of infected humans and is spread through the swallowing of contaminated recreational water, eating uncooked food contaminated with Cryptosporidium, and swallowing Cryptosporidium various from surfaces contaminated with an infected person’s feces. Watery diarrhea and cramps are the most common symptoms of cryptosporidiosis. Fever, nausea, weight loss, and vomiting may also be experienced. For immunocompetent individuals, watery diarrhea occurs between four days to a few weeks of contraction, with recurrent episodes of diarrhea after brief periods of recovery (Macy & Quick, 2015). The most effective preventive measure to nip the spread of cryptosporidiosis is the regular washing of hands. Patients experiencing diarrhea ought to avoid bathing or swimming in public places during the period that they experience diarrhea and for a time of not less than two weeks after each diarrhea attack. For immunocompromised people, any kind of sex including oral sex that may result in contact with stool should be avoided. Additionally, they should cook all their vegetable meals and take extra precautionary measures such as boiling their drinking water (Camerata, 2006). 

The finally addressed waterborne disease is Legionnaires' Disease, which has two distinct forms: the milder Pontiac fever and the more severe Legionnaires’ disease which includes pneumonia. This disease is caused by the bacteria Legionella pneumophila . The prime sources of the bacteria are water distribution systems of large establishments such as hotels, schools, and hospitals, mist machines, whirlpool spas, and mist machines. The inhalation of tiny droplets of water contaminated with the Legionella bacteria is the leading cause of Legionnaire’s disease. Infection yields flu-like symptoms, with patients experiencing dry cough, fever, and chills. Severe pneumonia unresponsive to treatment through penicillin may also develop (Macy & Quick, 2015). The control and prevention of Legionella bacteria which causes Legionnaire's disease must involve the use of chlorine dioxide. Chlorine dioxide is especially useful since it penetrates the biofilm present in piping, unlike most other disinfectants. It is also advantageous since it remains relatively uncompromised in pH values of 4-10 (Macy & Quick, 2015). One of the toxic substances that may enter the public water supply is lead. Lead penetrates the public water supply system through corrosion of lead service pipes used in domestic water supply systems. The rates of lead pipe corrosion are unusually high in the water with high levels of acidity or low mineral contents, therefore, corroding pipes and fixtures with lead solder. In areas predominantly supplied with water through lead pipes, corroding lead pipes release up to ten times the permissible lead content in public water systems. In the U.S. older buildings erected before 1986 most likely contain lead in their plumbing. Lead is a toxic substance with various adverse health effects, especially on children (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2015). In children, lead causes a myriad of health defects. Such include developmental issues such as slow and stunted growth, brain damage leading to lower IQ and hyperactivity, behavioral problems, and learning disabilities. In pregnant women, an accumulation of lead in their system can lead to stunted fetus growth and premature births. In adults, lead evokes cardiovascular effects such as high blood pressure and the occurrence of hypertension, receding kidney function, and reproductive problems in women as well as men (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2015). In the United States, uncontrolled and older waste sites exist in varying degrees of size and complexity. Some sites are small containing only a meager number of abandoned containers while some stretch for acres and are located near populated locations. They include old and abandoned manufacturing sites to company dumpsites, often laden with hazardous materials. The health-hazardous substances contained in such sites include mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls, perchlorate, arsenic, dioxins, hexachlorobenzene, Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (DDT) and actual (Vrijheid, 2000). These hazardous wastes contaminate the air, soil, and water in the vicinity of the waste sites. Flowing water through these sites carries them into rivers and other water bodies, including those that are sources of drinking water. These toxins, such as arsenic, could also seep into the soil, contaminating the soil and eventually reaching underground water tables. The consumption of this water, the inhalation of the polluted air and the consumption of food grown in areas contaminated by the toxic substances in the waste site lead to various health problems in humans. The health problems include brain damage, muscle atrophy, memory loss, skin rashes, respiratory diseases, nerve damage, blindness, cognitive disability, reproductive disabilities, and various types of cancers including skin, lung, and balder cancers (Vrijheid, 2000). Human waste management in the Middle Ages consisted primarily of holes cut in wooden platforms over cesspools with no mechanisms for odor control. Cities in the Middle Ages lacked the sufficient infrastructure for waste disposal and management. In use were open trenches, chamber pots and defecation outhouses. Waste was either buried in the ground or dumped into rivers. The result was foul odors, unpleasant environments, and disease outbreaks as in the bubonic plague of the 1340s in London. In the middle ages, the separation of drinking water and human waste was a prevalently nonexistent practice and therefore human wastes easily found their way from waste pits to wells. Throughout the Middle Ages, it is imperative to note that the connection between disease and human waste disposal was absent. It was only after the realization of this relationship that initiatives were made to handle waste human waste in a safer way that the precedents for today's sanitary sewage systems were set (Feo & Antoniou, 2014). In contrast to the Middle Ages, present-day sewage treatment concerns itself with the elimination of hazardous contents from wastewater to produce safer wastewater released to the environment. At the heart of modern-day sewage treatment is health concerns to eliminate the health dangers associated with human waste handling. Present-day methods of treating include wastewater effluent systems and on-site systems. In on-site systems, sewage is treated in septic tanks, and the effluent is disposed of in an area around the site’s location. In a wastewater effluent system, sewage from a community is disposed of at a central location such as a sewage lagoon. There is a clear and deliberate effort to separate drinking water systems from sewage lines in order to avoid health hazards (Vrijheid, 2000). In the United States, wastewater treatment undergoes five stages. These stages are preliminary treatment, primary treatment, secondary treatment, disinfection, and finally, sludge treatment. The preliminary treatment involves the removal of large pieces of trash from the influent to safeguard the treatment equipment such as pumps. 85-95% of pollutants in the wastewater are eliminated in the secondary and primary treatment levels. After these two stages, in the United States, it is permissible to discharge the disinfected water into local waterways. The resulting sludge from the treatment phases is then digested for stabilization and later water is removed from it to encourage easier handling. The biosolids, which refer to the solid that remains after the dewatering of the sludge, are then utilized in agriculture to improve yields (NYC Environmental Protection, 2016). Water recycling is the reusing of treated effluent from waste wastewater and sewage for various purposes. Recycled water is presently used for non-potable purposes mainly. These uses include landscaping, irrigating farmlands, toilet flushing, and in manufacturing industries. The use of reclaimed water has benefits such as reducing the diversion of freshwater from critical ecosystems as well as the creation of wetlands suitable for agricultural use (NYC Environmental Protection, 2016). Despite the apparent benefits of using recycled water, contentious issues emerge in regard to the safety of using recycled water for potable reasons. Despite high levels of treatment to make recycled water drinkable, many people would still consider it as drinking sewage. It is from this thought that concerns for the safety of this water emerge (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2015). Occupational hazards are the dangers facing human health and safety in the line of duty in various occupations. Wastewater and sewage treatment personnel risk exposure to numerous physical, chemical, and biological occupational health hazards and illnesses while dispensing duty. Chemical hazards include wastewater and sewage treatment chemicals which may result in poisoning and chemical accidents such as skin burns, allergies, chronic diseases, and respiratory system infections. Physical hazards include slips and falls, electric shocks, cuts and pricks from sharp objects, entanglement in moving machines, and explosions. Pathogens such as viruses, protozoa, fungi, and bacteria comprise the biological hazards facing these professionals. Common illnesses which wastewater and sewage treatment workers may contract include tuberculosis, meningitis, hepatitis, poliomyelitis and amoebic dysentery (Simeonova, 2011). To mitigate these hazards, I would recommend the use of safety equipment while on duty and regular medical checkups. Protective gear such as safety boots and safety goggles should be worn to protect workers from chemical spills. All electrical equipment should be checked for safety before use by competent electricians. Chemical mixing should be conducted in the presence of qualified chemists to avoid explosive reactions. All workers should also undergo routine checkups by occupational physicians to allow for the early detection of probable allergies or chronic effects (Vrijheid, 2000). 

References  

Camerata, J. (2006). Waterborne Diseases. Chino Valley: Teaching Learning College. 

Feo, G. D., & Antoniou, G. (2014). The Historical Development of Sewers Worldwide. Sustainability . 

Macy, J., & Quick, R. (2015). Transmission and Prevention of Water-Related Diseases. Water and Health, 1 . NYC Environmental Protection. (2016). New York City's Wastewater Treatment System . Retrieved from NYC Gov: http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/wastewater/wwsystem-process.shtml 

Simeonova, N. (2011, September 12). From Medieval to Modern . Retrieved from Water and Waste Digest: https://www.wwdmag.com/editorialtopical/medieval-modern 

United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2015). Basic Information about Lead in Drinking Water . Retrieved from Environmental Protection Agency: https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/basic-information-about-lead-drinking-water 

Vrijheid, M. (2000, March 1). Health Effects of Residence Near Hazardous Waste. Environmental Health Perspectives, 8 (1).