Women in the Military: History, Policy, and Politics

Since the enactment of the Women’s Armed Services Integration Act of 1948, the integration of women into the United States (U.S) has been growing significantly. For instance, only 2% of women were allowed to enlist in the military before 1967. Likewise, only 10% of the officer corps was expected to be comprised of women. Until 1974, admittance of women into the service academies was prohibited ( Kamarck , 2016; Amara & Krengel , 2014 ). The number of women in the military has been rising following the end of conscription in 1973 ( Patten & Parker, 2011) . In recent decades, women have served and continue to serve in such areas as naval vessels, combat aircraft as well as in supporting ground combat operations. The role of women in the Armed Force has been characterized by evolution resulting in the expansion of their roles since the early days. Various policies and laws restricted the involvement of women in the military. Thus, women could only serve in certain units and occupations. In 1993, the Congress repealed the remaining restrictions to the serving of women on combatant vessels and aircraft ( Amara & Krengel , 2014 ). This implies that the prevention of women from serving in any occupational specialty or military unit has not been based on law. Instead, policies of the Department of Defense (DoD) have restricted the assignment of women to units lower than the brigade level in which case the primary role of the unit is to engage in ground combat directly ( Amara & Krengel , 2014; Patten & Parker, 2011 ). The policy prevented female military officers from serving in the artillery, infantry, armor, in special operations unit the size of a battalion or smaller, and as combat engineers. The restrictions on women's participation in the military were put to an end by Leon Panetta, the U.S Secretary of Defense on 24 th January 2013. This paper will, therefore, explore the integration of women in the U.S military. 

Historical background 

In the past, American women have participated in such wars as the American Revolution as well as the Spanish-American War. In these wars, they assumed the roles of couriers, nurses, saboteurs, laundry workers, spies and cooks ( Kamarck , 2016 ). Some women were involved in hand-to-hand combat, often disguised as men. Despite these acts of bravery, all women who took part in America’s early wars were considered civilians and thus not integral components of the army. During the World War I (WWI), women were recruited by the Marine Corps and the Navy to serve as translators, uniformed clerks and radio operators among other military tasks. The Navy and Army also used female nurse corps but did not recognize them as vital parts of the military. During the World War II (WWII), the army was faced with a shortage of personnel to undertake various non-combat jobs. In response, the Congress established the Women’s Army Corps (WAC) ( Amara & Krengel , 2014 ). The members of WAC boasted full military status, though in an organization that was separate from the Army. Likewise, the Congress authorized for distinct women’s reserve units for the Coast Guard, Navy as well as the Marine Corps. 

Approximately, 350,000 women volunteered with the regular armed services with the aim of serving in the WWII. These women undertook such roles as truck drivers, auxiliary pilots, mechanics, clerks as well as electricians. The involvement of women, in this case, was aimed at ‘freeing' the men so that they could go and fight ( Kamarck , 2016 ). Involvement of women in war was not unique to the U.S. For instance, America's allies also sought the services of women in the war. In Britain, women were drafted and trained to use anti-aircraft guns. While these women were imparted with skills, they were not allowed to pull the trigger. Women in the Soviet Union were directly involved in fighting. In this case, they undertook such tasks as machine-gunners, combat pilots, snipers and tank crew members. Interestingly, these women were anti-aircraft gunners but could not pull the trigger. 

Integration of women into the military: Past efforts 

Women in America have participated in wars throughout the nation’s history, assuming numerous roles in the process. However, their integration into the armed forces only began after the end of WWII in 1948 ( Kamarck , 2016 ). In this pursuit, the Congress began debating on the possibility of making women permanent components of the regular military. General Dwight Eisenhower reckoned that women ought to share the responsibility of ensuring that America was secure just as it was for the British women during in WWII. In line with this idea, the Women’s Armed Services Integration Act was signed by President Harry Truman in June 1948 ( Amara & Krengel , 2014) . This act required women enlistment as well as commissioned in the Navy, the Air Force, Marine Corps and Navy. The female reserves and the Separate Women’s Army Corps operated for a while before being faced out. This integration of female officers ensured that they were recognized as being part of the army. Despite this, these officers faced several restrictions. For example, women could not make up more than 2% of the total military force ( MacKenzie , 2015) . Also, a cap was imposed on the number of female military officers as well as their ranks. Regarding the latter, women were not supposed to hold any command authority that was deemed as being above that of men. Secondly, they could not be assigned to the Navy ships and the military aircraft. Thirdly, women could not serve in the combat. To exemplify the enforcement of this position, during the Korean War, it was only the female medical personnel and nurses who went to the war. The rest of the female military officers served in the U.S. and Japan. 

During the Vietnam War, the popularity of drafting declined. Consequently, the armed forces were forced to increase the recruitment of female officers who had been excluded from the conscription. To fill the gap, the U.S. lifted the 2% cap, and as a result, women volunteers took up more military posts than had ever been seen before ( Yeung et al., 2017; Amara & Krengel , 2014; Patten & Parker, 2011 ). This reduced the need to have more men drafted. When the U.S. withdrew its troops from Vietnam, the draft was ended by the Congress and subsequently replaced by an all-volunteer military. Following this decision, the armed forces saw an opportunity for recruiting more women in a bid to fill the resultant job vacancies since only a few men sought to be drafted. This was a huge boost to the efforts of integrating women into the military. While female officers were no longer kept in segregated units in the early stages of the all-volunteer military, they were still not equal to the male officers. This meant that, to some extent, the restrictions that the Women's Armed Services Integration Act sought to address were still present. Despite this, women proved that they could handle many military jobs that were previously considered as reserves for men. Moreover, beyond the forces, there was a growing women's movement in America whose aim was to push for more opportunities for women in the armed forces. The barriers to inclusion of women in the military began to fall in the 1970’s due to this pressure. Women began to be assigned to noncombat military aircraft and naval ships. Advanced officer training schools targeted at women were also opened. In the year 1976 service academies started enrolling women ( Yeung et al., 2017) . Women also began taking up leadership roles, in the process commanding both men and women. Nevertheless, the promotion of women to higher ranks was slower due to their exclusion from combat experience. 

The U.S. Supreme Court in 1981 ruled that the law that made ineligible for drafting was indeed constitutional ( Kamarck , 2016 ). The argument, in this case, was that drafting was aimed at producing combat troop and that according to the law, women were excluded from combat. This informed the conceptualization of the ‘Risk Rule’ by the DoD in 1988 ( Amara & Krengel , 2014) . This rule barred women from undertaking non-combat jobs that eventually exposed them to hostile fire, combat as well as capture ( Jeffreys , 2007) . Following Kuwait’s invasion by Saddam Hussein in 1990, the resultant Persian Gulf War led to the deployment of approximately 40,000 female military officers. Interestingly, women were still restricted from both combat and non-combat duty that put them at risk. This is because the forces were consistently on the lookout for ground-to-ground missiles from the Iraqi forces. The Congress, after the Persian Gulf War, repealed the laws that prohibited the serving of women on combat navy ships and combat aircraft. The only exception was women’s service on submarines. The Risk Rule was cancelled by the DoD in 1994 and was replaced by the Ground Combat Exclusion Policy. The policy all qualified service members were fit for all jobs. The policy excluded women from involvement in assignment to units whose level was below brigade level since they would be engaged in on-the-ground direct combat ( Jeffreys , 2007) 

The Ground Combat Exclusion Policy was a culmination of the general perception of women in the U.S military ( Kamarck , 2016; MacKenzie , 2015; Culver, 2013 ; Jeffreys , 2007 ). These included the need to protect female officers from capture by the enemy and other battlefield dangers. Also, there was a view that women are wired to be life-givers, and therefore ought not to be trained on how to kill. Lastly, combat was largely seen as a man’s job. In this regard, the assumption was that women neither had the stamina nor the physical strength needed for combat ( MacKenzie , 2015; Culver, 2013 ) . Due to the usefulness of women in combat, commanders were often faced with the dilemma of whether or not to retain women in combat zones ( Amara & Krengel , 2014) . For instance, female soldiers were found to be more effective in carrying out searches on Muslim women and homes compared to their male counterparts. Women were also useful in flying helicopters as well as other aircraft during combat and rescue missions. Despite women’s immense contribution, their involvement resulted in wounding and death of a significant number of them. 

Recent developments 

On 24 th January 2013, Leon Panetta, the then Defence Secretary, declared that all the obstacles that prevented the full integration of women into the U.S. military would be lifted ( Yeung et al., 2017; Kamarck , 2016; Amara & Krengel , 2014; Patten & Parker, 2011 ). This included such obstacles as those pertaining combat units. This decision was targeted to be fully implemented by 1 st January 2016, unless the Congress was presented with reasons to justify any possible exceptions. Thus, on 3 rd December 2015, Ash Carter, the former Defense Secretary announced that all positions in the military would be fully open to all women ( Yeung et al., 2017; Kamarck , 2016 ). Likewise, no exceptions were given. The two announcements marked the end of the discrimination of women interested in pursuing military careers. Mainly, the announcements consolidated efforts of integrating women into the military. These efforts had taken place for decades. By fully integrating women into the military, the U.S. had followed such nations as France. 

Conclusion 

The slow process of fully integrating women into the U.S. military took place in successive phases and was characterized by particular periods of advancement during which the involvement of women was necessary. Notable among these were the periods of crisis. Women's exceptional performance helped the removal of final obstacles during the first Gulf War and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Currently, the importance of women in the U.S. military cannot be overstated. 

References  

Amara, J., & Krengel, M. (2014). Roles and challenges of women in the military. In N. D. Ainspan, C. Bryan, & W. E. Penk (Eds.). Psychosocial Interventions for Veterans: A Guide for the Non-Military Mental Health Clinician. In press. New York: Oxford University Press. 

Culver, V. R. (2013). Woman-warrior: Gender identity development of women in the American military.  Journal of the Student Personnel Association at Indiana University , 64-74. 

Jeffreys, S. (2007, January). Double jeopardy: Women, the US military and the war in Iraq. In  Women's Studies International Forum  (Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 16-25). Pergamon. 

Kamarck, K. N. (2016).  Women in combat: Issues for Congress . Congressional Research Service Washington United States. 

MacKenzie, M. (2015).  Beyond the band of brothers: The US military and the myth that women can't fight . Cambridge University Press. 

Patten, E., & Parker, K. (2011).  Women in the US military: Growing share, distinctive profile . Washington, DC: Pew Research Center. 

Yeung, D., Steiner, C. E., Hardison, C. M., Hanser, L. M., & Kamarck, K. N. (2017).  Recruiting Policies and Practices for Women in the Military . RAND Corporation.