Women of Color in Higher Education

Chapter One: Introduction 

Background of the Study 

Women of color (WOC) have had to endure numerous challenges and obstacles in their quest to navigate through the waters of higher education. The current successes, as well as the expected success in the future, has been made possible by the struggles as well as the obstacles faced by earlier groups of women in their attempt to enter into the field of academia. Women of color have had to endure a triple tragedy as a result of the pernicious impact of sexism, racism, and classism as they strive to move up into leadership positions (Jean-Marie and Lloyd-Jones, 2011). Despite their numbers in colleges and universities as well as leadership roles being higher in the last couple of years, WOC remains underrepresented in higher education especially when it comes to leadership. 

Identified as Hispanic/Latina, Pacific/Asian American, African American, as well as Native American women, women of color are a marginalized group, and have to put up with a wide range of discriminations in their attempts to participate in the society equally (Jean-Marie and Lloyd-Jones, 2011). Over the past few years, indicators such as economic security, academic attainment, and health show that girls and women of color have made considerable progress. Across the different industries, women of color have climbed up the ranks into leadership positions, and the number of women of color owning their businesses has also increased by a significant margin. The teenage pregnancy rates for girls of color has gone down, and the graduation rates at both high school and college levels have increased (Jean-Marie and Lloyd-Jones, 2011). Despite these achievements, girls, and women of color continue to face unique challenges that curtail their full and equal participation in the society (The White House, 2014). The rates of poverty remain relatively high among girls and women of color. When it comes to performance in standardized tests, girls of color also perform poorly compared to their white counterparts. Unlike white women, women of color receive lower wages and are at a higher risk of becoming victims of the criminal justice system. They also experience higher rates of domestic violence and have the highest rates of serious health complications such as diabetes, heart disease and obesity (The White House, 2014).

Evans (2007) reports that the number of tenured professors in America’s public and private universities at the start of the 21st century was 176,485. Out of this, 72 percent were white men with white women making up 17 percent. Men of color accounted for 8 percent while women of color made only 2 percent of the tenured full professors, a clear indicator that there are unique challenges that women and even men of color face in higher-education (Evans, 2007). The College and University Professional Association for Human Resources (CUPA-HR), in a brief titled Representation and Pay for Women of Color in the Higher Education Workforce , reports that there persist challenges of inequity in the higher education workforce, especially for women of color. This group of women is said to experience a combination of challenges faced by both minority men and white men. It is reported that the inequality is quite apparent in the overall median pay. Women of color, compared to white men, receive 67 cents on the dollar (CUPA-HR, 2018). 

Purpose of the Study 

Despite the many obstacles and challenges that they face, women of color have continued to fight for their inclusion in higher education and leadership roles in higher education. To have a better understanding of their unique challenges and what can be done to address these challenges, it is necessary to examine the experiences of WOC in higher-education. The purpose of the current study is to investigate the experiences of WOC in higher-education to establish the challenges they face and the factors contributing to their underrepresentation in higher education.

Objectives of the Study 

The main objective of the study is to examine the experiences of women of color in higher education. In addition to that, the study seeks to:

Identify the challenges that WOC face in higher-education

Establish the factors that contribute to the underrepresentation of WOC in higher-education. 

Research Questions 

What are the challenges that WOC in the higher-education face?

What factors have contributed to the underrepresentation of WOC in higher-education?

Chapter Two: Literature Review

Numerous studies have sought to examine the experiences of WOC in higher education and leadership positions. Kim (2008) asserts that since WOC are both racial and gender minorities, they have to put up with a double jeopardy namely limited economic opportunities as a result of their race and gender. Kim (2008) adds that the double jeopardy is exhibited in the type of jobs available to the women of color as well as their lower pay. Kim (2008) goes ahead to compared the salaries that different groups of American workers earn relative to women of color. She points out that among those who work full-time, black women get 66% of the average white men weekly pay while Hispanic women get 59% of the same. White women earn 78% of the average white men weekly pay while Asian women earn the highest percentage at 87% of the weekly white men's pay. According to Kim (2008) women of color generally, earn less than white men and men of color. Further researcher has been done to establish the causes of lower earnings among women of color, with findings indicating that it is down to subtle biases. 

In a report published by the White House (2014), it is reported that girls and women of color have made significant progress as far as educational attainment is concerned. However, there persist opportunity gaps between the girls and women of color and their white counterparts. It is reported that since 2004, the reading and math scores for girls in National Assessment of Education Progress has generally improved (White House, 2014). However, girls of color have shown a weaker performance compared to their white peers. Compared to boys of color, the likelihood of girls of color graduating from High School is relatively higher. However, their chances of graduating are lower compared to white girls. Hispanic girls are 12.8 percentage points less likely to graduate from high school while black girls are 14.6 percentage points less likely to graduate compared to white girls (White House, 2014). Girls categorized as Alaska Native/ American Indian are 16 percentage points less likely to graduate compared to white girls. The same scenario repeats itself when it comes to graduating from college where WOC are more likely to graduate compared to men of color. Compared to white women, Hispanic women are 10 percentage points, black women 21.3 percentage points, American Indian/Alaska Native women are 22.5 percentage points, and Pacific Islander women 14.8 percentage points less likely to graduate from college (White House, 2014). 

Girls of color have also been found to face challenges that are unique when it comes to school discipline. Compared to their white counterparts, girls of color studying in public schools are at a greater risk of getting suspended from school (White House, 2014). The percentage is also relatively high when it comes to girls with disabilities where up to 1 in 5 girls of color with disabilities is victims of out-of-school suspension, a high figure compared white girls at 6 percent (White House, 2014). There are also significant gaps for women and girls of color when it comes to education and careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Despite recent surveys indicating that women of color are showing increased interest in STEM, they are still underrepresented in the careers and educational programs that are STEM-related. The percentage of women of color who graduated with a bachelor's degree in science and engineering in 2010 was 10.6 percent (White House, 2014). The percentage of women of color awarded master’s degree in these fields was even lower at 7.9 percent, and doctorate degrees much lower at 3.9 percent. Recent statistics further reveal that less than 1 in 10 scientists and engineers that are employed are WOC (White House, 2014).

The College and University Professional Association for Human Resources (CUPA-HR), in a research brief titled Representation and Pay for Women of Color in the Higher Education Workforce , reports that there persist challenges of inequity in the higher education workforce, especially for women of color. It is reported that the inequity is quite apparent when it comes to the overall median pay, which has over the years remained relatively low for women of color. The report goes on to identify some of the factors that have contributed to the low median pay among WOC in higher-education, one of them being the disproportionate overrepresentation of women of color in lower-paid positions (CUPA-HR, 2018). The second reason identified is that pay equity has stood out as a persistent challenge for WOC across job types, including higher-level positions where they are paid considerably lower compared to white men. This is a clear indicator that women of color have to tackle an intersection of two challenges brought about by their gender and ethnicity (CUPA-HR, 2018).

Evans (2007) investigates the reasons why there are still few women and faculty of color in colleges and universities in America, with a particular focus being on African American women. Evans (2007) posits that African American women are just but a single demographic that has for a long time been marginalized or excluded in academia. However, this population provides an interesting reference point for the discussion of faculty diversity. According to Evans (2007), the last couple of years has been characterized by an increase in the number of women in academia. However, the fact that a considerable number seep out of the pipeline is hard to ignore. Evans (2007) points out that at every level of the academic pipeline, women are given negative reviews and isolated as a result of limited women mentors. She also argues that women have to pay the ultimate social tax that comes in form of childbearing, childrearing and care-taking jobs, all of which puts them at a considerable disadvantage when it comes to career advancement. Bartman (2015) also examines the issues that African American women in higher education have to deal with and the possible support strategies. She also notes that African American women are making significant progress as far as higher education is concerned, and this is reflected through their participation and degree attainment rates. Bartman (2015) reports that as of 2010, black American women were responsible for 66% of all the bachelor’s degrees that black Americans had attained. This group of women also continue to make up a higher percentage of all students getting into institutions of higher education. Despite the participation and graduation rates for Black American women have increased over the years, they still lag behind Latino, Asian America and White women (Bartman, 2015). 

Different studies have been able to establish that the difficulties that WOC face in higher-education can be traced to the traditional and out-of-date models that many institutions of higher education follow. Lou (2015) opines that WOC working as student affairs leaders have to tackle numerous challenges in their quest to navigate institutional roles while subscribing to the dominant leadership roles that tend to be oriented towards the western values of success. Linden (2012) opines that WOC would have experienced more success if the national and organizational processes and systems did not hinder them from professionally advancing relative to their constantly rising numbers and higher educational attainment. Vanderbroeck (2010) points out that the success of WOC in leadership roles is further limited by certain assumptions, one of them being that the success of both men and women can be judged on the same qualities and that copying the behavior of white males is the main way of achieving success. Vanderbroeck (2010) further opines that these assumptions are made stronger by measuring instruments developed by panels that are dominated by white men and then utilized in organizations and institutions that are dominated by white males. 

Chapter 3: Methodology

Research Design 

A research design describes the overall strategy that a researcher opts to incorporate into the different components of their research logically and coherently thereby facilitating effective addressing of the research problem (Yates, 2015). It serves as a blueprint for data collection, measurement, and analysis. For the current study, the researcher utilized a qualitative research design. This research design involves examining phenomena and issues through the collection and analysis of unstructured data (Parahoo, 2014). There are several approaches to qualitative studies including surveys, case studies, content analysis, observation, and in-depth interviews. A qualitative research design comes with several benefits, one of them being facilitating the provision of individual case information. In addition to that, qualitative research designs allow the making of cross-case comparisons and analysis, and also makes it possible for dynamic processes to be studied (Parahoo, 2014). Qualitative approaches are also very flexible and can be made responsive to the local needs and conditions.

Data Collection Method

To examine the experiences of WOC in higher-education and the challenges they face, the researcher utilized in-depth interviews as the data collection method. This is a qualitative research approach that involves carrying out intensive individual interviews with a sizeable number of respondents, the main objective is to get their perspectives about a particular issue, program, idea or situation. They are relevant in studies where the researcher seeks to get detailed information about certain issues in greater depth. This approach is mostly utilized to provide context to other data. In-depth interviews come with a number benefits, key among them being that researchers can collect more detailed information compared to other methods such as surveys. Additionally, in-depth interviews avail a more conducive environment in which researchers can collect information.

Sample Size 

In a research study, the sample size describes the number of units selected from a study population and from which data to examine a phenomenon will be collected. The rationale of having a sample size is that it is challenging and infeasible to study an entire population. As such, a small number of units has to be selected from the population (Parahoo, 2014). The units have to adequately represent the population so that true inferences about the said population can be made from the obtained results. For the current study, the study population was WOC in leadership positions in institutions of higher learning. The researcher opted to have a sample size of five participants, the rationale being the limited financial and time resources which did not allow for an extensive study involving many participants to be conducted.

Sampling Method and Procedure

To select participants who would take part in the current study, the researcher made use of purposeful sampling. With this sampling technique, choosing the units to be examined depends on the researcher's own judgment. Based on the topic under research, the researcher decides the most appropriate participants to enroll in the study. This calls for the researcher to come up with a list of traits and attributes that the respondents must poses (Ryan, 2013). The main objective of purposeful sampling is to identify study participants who will offer the best insight into the phenomenon under investigation. This technique of sampling comes with several advantages, one of them being that it facilitates the elimination of participants who fall short of the recruitment criteria (Ryan, 2013).

For the current study, the participants that the researcher sought to recruit had to be women of color in institutions of higher learning. They also had to be in one or more leadership roles in their respective institutions. The researcher identified institutions that have a sizeable number of women of color as students and workers. From these institutions, specific personnel was approached and requested to take part in a short interview aimed at gaining an insight into their experiences at the institution. The researcher was able to select a total of three colleges from which 5 participants were recruited and later interviewed. Two participants were interviewed face to face while three interviews were conducted over the phone. 

Chapter four: Findings

To maintain the privacy and anonymity of the participants, the researchers will refer to them as respondent 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. The five respondents were asked the following questions:

As a woman of color in a leadership role in institutions of higher learning, how can you describe your experiences so far?

Do you think women of color are doing well in higher education both regarding academics and leadership?

Do you think women of color are proportionately represented when it comes to leadership roles in institutions of higher learning?

If not, what do you think are some of the factors contributing to the underrepresentation of women of color in higher education?

As a Woman of Color in a Leadership Role in an Institutions of Higher Learning, how can you Describe your Experiences so far?

All the respondents reported that attaining leadership positions in higher education was not an easy fete. Respondent 1 pointed out that she had to deal with a lot of discrimination and biases in the quest to become a leader in her institution. "Most of the people I had to face-off with were white males, a clear indicator of how white males dominate higher education in the US," she reports. Respondent 3 was also pointed out that her experiences were not that great because as a woman of color, she had to work extra hard to get to that position. She opined that generally, women of color have to overcompensate in ways that might be unhealthy for them since they are both gender and racial minorities.

Do you think Women of Color are doing well in Higher Education both regarding Academics and Leadership?

All the respondents report that the current situation for WOC in higher-education is better than it was three to four decades ago. Respondent 2 reported that there are more women of color getting enrolled in colleges and universities, and more are getting into careers traditionally reserved for men. Respondent 4 pointed out that women of color are currently doing well in higher education, and many are taking up leadership roles and getting into courses traditionally dominated by men. Respondent 5 also gave similar sentiments, indicating that the current academic environment has proved to be more conducive for women of color and that there are more opportunities for this group of women today than it was in the past. 

Do you think Women of Color are Proportionately Represented when it comes to Leadership Roles in Institutions of Higher Learning?

All the five respondents indicated that from their own experiences and judgment, women of color remain underrepresented as far as leadership roles in institutions of higher learning were concerned. Respondent 5 reported that most of the traditional barriers to women of color getting into leadership roles are still standing and that if more effort is directed towards eliminating these barriers, more women of color in the US will assume leadership roles in higher education. Respondent 3 pointed out that higher education has become quite expensive in the US, a fact that has seen minority groups such as women of color remain underrepresented both as academicians and leaders.

If not, what do you think are some of the Factors Contributing to the Underrepresentation of Women of Color in Higher Education?

The respondents were of the opinion that many factors are contributing to the underrepresentation of women of color in higher. The factors that were mostly mentioned including economic inequalities, lack of proper mentors as well as traditional family and social values that discourage women of color to pursue the same things that men do.

Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion

` The current investigation into the experiences of WOC in higher-education reveals that they encounter more challenges because of a combination of their gender and race. A huge number of scholars opine that the intersection of gender and race is quite complex and shifts depending on the issue and situation being investigated. In the case of higher education, this intersection has resulted in the underrepresentation of WOC in higher-education as scholars and as leaders. 

Getting into leadership positions is not an easy undertaking for women of color, and the same applies to higher education. The number of women of color in leadership roles in higher education is relatively low compared to men of color and women of color. Compared to the past decades, the situation for WOC in higher-education has significantly improved (Bartman, 2015). WOC are currently doing well in higher education, and many are taking up leadership roles and getting into courses traditionally dominated by men. The current environment has become more conducive, and women of color now have more opportunities to access higher education and become leaders in higher education. Nevertheless, they are still underrepresented, and the pay gap between those in leadership position compared to white males is relatively big (CUPA-HR, 2018). The findings from the current study reveal that both underrepresentation and equity issues cannot be treated independently for they are intertwined. The many race-based and gender-based challenges faced by WOC call for the implementation of solutions that are multifaceted.

References

Bartman, C. C. (2015). African American women in higher education: Issues and support strategies. College Student Affairs Leadership , 2 (2), 5.

Evans, S. Y. (2007). Women of color in American higher education. Thought & Action , 131.

Jean-Marie, G., & Lloyd-Jones, B. (2011). Women of color in higher education: Turbulent past, promising future (Vol. 9). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing.

Kim, M (2008). Women of Color. Retrieved from http://prospect.org/article/women-color

Linden, P. (2012). Women and the organizational chess game: A qualitative study of gender, discourse, power, and strategy . UMI Dissertation Publishing.

Lou, H.C. (2015). Women of color leadership: Utilizing differential consciousness to navigate workspaces. The Vermont Connection, 33(11), 86-95.

McChesney, J (2018). Representation and Pay of Women of Color in the Higher Education Workforce. A CUPA-HR Research Brief. Retrieved from https://www.cupahr.org/wp-content/uploads/CUPA-HR-Brief-Women-Of-Color.pdf

The White House (2014). Women and Girls of Color: Addressing Challenges and Expanding Opportunity . Retrieved from https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/docs/cwg_women_and_girls_of_color_report_112014.pdf

Vanderbroeck, P. (2010). The traps that keep women from reaching the top and how to avoid them. Journal of Management Development . 29(9), 764 - 770