Goldstein, Yossi. 2015. "Reflections of Zion." Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 14, no. 2: 229-245. Academic Search Complete , EBSCO host (accessed November 17, 2017).
The source mainly defines Zionism and describes the role played by Herzl. According to this source, the term Zionism refers to both an ideology and a political movement. The Zionism ideology holds that Jews as a people are a nation and they should gather in one homeland just as the other societies do. As such, the doctrine was mostly used to advocate for the return the Jews to their former homeland. Notably, the term mainly applied to the Evangelical Christians who desired to see people of the Jewish religion returning to their former homeland. The evangelicals believed that the move would hasten the return of Christ. On the other Hand, Zionism the political movement was founded by Theodor Herzl in 1897; he incorporated the ideas of early thinkers and used the ideology of gathering the Jews in one homeland.
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Goldstein also posits that Theodore Herzl held the first international Jewish Congress called Zionism back in 1897; the main aim was to form or establish Jewish State. Zionism has been rated among the most effective political ideologies because in 1948 Israel; a sovereign state belonging to the Jewish people was established. Zionism movement also effectively built major cities such as Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Beersheba, and Haifa. The Zionism ideas evolved over a span, and several cultural and social, national and colonial factors influenced the movement.
Honig-Parnass, Tikva. False Prophets of Peace: Liberal Zionism and the Struggle for Palestine . Chicago, Illinois: Haymarket Books, 2011.
According to Honig-Parnass, Zionism did not entirely spring from the Zionist Movement in 1897. The Jews had maintained a spiritual and actual connection with Palestine after most of them were evicted from Roman Palestine during Bar Kochba Revolt back in 135. The Jewish community that remained in Palestine revived as by 1000 A.D. there were more than 300, 000 Jews in Palestine. Nevertheless, the crusades that followed killed most of the Jews and forced the rest of them into exile, leaving only 1000 families behind after the Saladin conquered Palestine again. The Jewish community in the Palestine waned after the conquest and the economic hardships that followed the conquest. Different Turkish leaders invited the displaced Jewish people to settle in Hebron and Tiberias. As a result, many of the Jewish people moved to Hebron, Tiberius, Safed, Jerusalem, Gaza, and Nablus.
Honig-Parnass also posits that the Jewish communities in the Diaspora preserved the Jewish culture and their ties to the ancient land by use of religion. They prayed several times each day just as they used to do in their ancient land. At the same time, they maintained the agricultural feasts and called for rains for their ancient land from which they imported Sukkoth. Despite the earlier mishaps in Palestine, small groups of Jews moved to Palestine as they fled persecution in Europe. Others settled in Palestine following rabbinical or messianic calls. Since the onset of 1700, rabbis led many people to settle in Palestine from the Ottoman Empire and Europe. Case in point, Rabbi Yehuda Hehasid led his followers into Jerusalem but soon afterward, he died. Later, his group was lynched and the synagogue they worshipped in destroyed, owing to some unpaid debts. All European Jews were banned from Jerusalem from following that incidence. However, around 1740 rabbis Ben Atar and Luzato led a large immigration into Palestine. Other Jews came from Turkey and Lithuania while other groups traveled from Europe. Additionally the source reports thatmany false messiahs such as Shabetai Tzvi also emerged in the period, and they lied to the Jews that they would take them back to the holy land.
Masalha, Nur. The Bible and Zionism: Invented Traditions, Archaeology, and Post-Colonialism in Palestine-Israel . London: Zed, 2007.
Masalha states that the connection that Jerusalem had on their ancient land was to most spiritual and cultural as they believed the return would be a hypothetical event that would occur at an undetermined future date when the Messiah returns. The European-Jews had limited resources: they mostly lived in slums and did not access general education.They faced economic disaster and were disbanded after disease outbreaks, natural disasters such as earthquakes, and anti-Jewish riots. Specifically, the Jewish people who lived in Hebron, Safed, Jerusalem, and Tiberius were destroyed by natural as well as man-made catastrophes. They repopulated several times, but the locations never supported several thousand persons at a time. Additionally, the thesis states that by the mid-19th century, there were 17,000 Jews in Palestine, and they primarily depended on charity-(Halukka donations). Only a few of them engaged in productive work such as trade and crafts.
Moreover, the author reports thatthe period of proto-Zionism followed the French Revolution and the liberation of the European Jewry. In this period, the spiritual bond the Jews had to the Holy Land was now clearer, although not so practical. In 1808, Lithuanian Jews led by Vilna Gaon, a famous rabbi, arrived in Palestine, and purchased land; the land was meant for farming purposes. In 1836, there were also petitions by some Rabbis to buy Palestine as a whole, or at least the Temple Mount for the Jews. In 1839 and 1840 negotiations with the Khedive, people of Egypt to allow purchase of Palestine by the Jews happened.These efforts, which were mostly led by Sir Montefiore, were fruitless. Nevertheless, Sir Montefiore continued the schemes though this time with less vigor in the 1840s.
British Zionism also played a vital part in the eventual acquisition of Israel. Case in point, the British intellectuals recommended the restoration of the Jews for religious and social reasons. Loed Shaftesbury and Palmerton championed the move in the 1840s. They thought that having a Jewish colony in Palestine would help in reviving the country. At the same time, they believed the move would be useful for religious purposes. Novelists and writers such as George Eliot and Walter Scott also voiced the same concern. Although the Ashkenazy or European Jews took the most active part in organized Zionism, the Sephardic or Spanish Jews had a closer practical tie with the Hebrew language and the holy land. They also participated and influenced the Zionist movement from the time it was born. Sarajevo or Solomon Alkalai was one of the Sephardic pioneers of the modern Zionism. He believed that if the land of Israel would be returned, then the Jewish people would be redeemed. Notably, Alkalai was a friend to Theodore Herzl’s grandfather. Theodore later became a founder of modern Zionism. Additionally, David Alkalai who was a Sephardi Jew and grand- nephew of Solomon Alkalai led the Zionist movement in Yugoslavia as well as Serbia.
ʻEvrôn, Bôʻaz. Jewish State or Israeli Nation? Bloomington u.a: Indiana Univ. Press, 1995
ʻEvrônsays that unlike the earlier forms of Zionism, Modern Zionism was partly divorced from religious aspirations. The 18th and 19th century saw the rising of new states. Besides, the enlightenment and liberation movements formed helped the Jews to leave the European slums they lived in for a long time. The move came with a plethora of changes in the culture of the Jewish community especially via the Haskalah Movement in Europe. Germany and Russia set in motion several processes that would make the formation of a Jewish national movement possible. One of the propositions was to enact the study of Hebrew as a secular language among Jews. They would also introduce Hebrew literature and press, creating a life outside the religious and rabbinical Judaism that formerly existed. The organizing team posited that the incorporation of the culture would bring the Jews into productive agriculture and occupations.
Some of the consequences were that some Jews converted to Christianity and integrated into the society that surrounded them. Others who were not exposed to the general education dropped their religious beliefs but were still considered Jews by others; they also considered themselves Jews despite the contrary religious practices that they now engaged in. As a result, it was clear that being a Jew was more than just following a religion. The Germans racists invented a racial theory, which laced scientific basis. On the other hand, the socialists called the Jewish society ‘a caste.' However, the Zionists solved the conundrum by declaring that the Jews were a people, a factor that is clear in the Jewish Bible and concept called t;amYiraeli. Despite the declaration, the Jews were a people who lacked a home country, making them remain politically powerless. They were considered guests everywhere and homelessness affected their influence negatively. Scholars posit that the Jewish problem all came from their state of homelessness.
‘ Aliya’ was the term that was used for going to the promised or holy land; the term means ‘going up’. The first Aliya or group of immigrants came to Israel with the aim of making it their official home for the Jews. These were mostly religious Jews who were numbered 25, 000 mainly from Eastern Europe. This group was composed of people defeated by unemployment, diseases, and poverty. The religious groups, as well as the non-religious ones, formed several societies and study groups that were geared towards purchasing land and settling in Palestine. Among the first arrivals was Eliezer Ben Yehuda who was later moved to Palestine. His assignment was to revive the Hebrew Language. Eliezer was helped by Nissim Bechar who owned the Alliance Israelite Universelle. Ben also published the Hatzvi Newspaper.
The media also played a significant role in the formulation of the modern idea of Zionism. Auto-Emancipation pamphlet , which was published in 1882 by Hovevei Tziyon and Leon Pinsker, posited that the Jews needed to liberate themselves and settle in a country of their own. Pinsker suggested that Argentina would make a good home country for the Jewish people; others preferred Palestine. Pinsker also wrote in favor of political Zionism in which the Jews in Europe would organize themselves and demand for land on which they would establish a national home. However, the Russian government rebuffed this idea, forcing him to redirect his energy to purchasing and settling small groups of Jews in Palestine.
Despite the numerous efforts, the settlers faced numerous economic and cultural problems. By 1800, misadministration and war had made the population drop to 200,000 people. By the 1880s, the group was larger, but it was poverty and disease stricken. The Ottoman government restricted immigration and mistreated the settlers who retained foreign nationality. The high levels of poverty, unemployment, and disease caused many to flee the land.
Eidelberg, Paul. "Foundations of the State of Israel: An Analysis of Israel's Declaration of Independence." Judaism 36, no. 4 (Fall87 1987): 391. Academic Search Complete , EBSCO host (accessed November 17, 2017).
Eidelberg mainly reports about the active role of the Zionist Movement and the challenges they faced. The thesis reports that in 1894, The Dreyfus Affair birthed the new urgency among the Jews. In this affair, a Jewish officer was convicted of treason falsely in the French army. The act was followed by waves of anti-Semitism in the press and among the French nationals. The new atmosphere spelled out one fact; Jews could not be accepted in the modern democracies, which were liberal. 1 In one of his pamphlets titled Der Judenstaat , Theodore Herzl, a Vienna Journalist stated that he planned to create a Jewish State. Theodore provided Zionism program; he called for the Zionist Congress in Switzerland in August 1897. The meeting received overwhelming support from Jews who understood the urgency of the matter more than ever before; it marked the foundation of the Zionist Political movement.
Sofer, Sasson. Zionism and the foundations of Israeli diplomacy . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
The book mainly addresses the use of diplomacy in the Israeli tactic. In 1902, Herzl published a utopian novel called Altneuland. He intended to popularize the Jewish state. He stated that his vision for the Jews was a land equipped with modern industry and monorails. Herzl’s notion was that the use of diplomatic activity would be the best method to get the Jewish people the land they so much desired. He diplomatically called for the transfer of the Jewish people to the new state. Further, Herzl said the Jewish people would not be choosy but would take the land the public opinion polls picked for them. Later, Herzl tried to gain a Charter from the Turkey Sultan; the charter would settle the Jews in Palestine that was then under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. Many meetings with the sultan and Wilhelm 11 bore no fruit. Herzl then negotiated with the British people to settle the Jews in Cyprus Island, Uganda, El Arish, or Sinai. During the sixth Zionist meeting, he proposed Uganda as the Jewish ‘temporary night refuge’ offered by the British but the idea faced vehement opposition from the Russian Jews. In further attempts, Herzl met the Pope and the king of Italy; the Pope was opposed to the idea while the king was very encouraging. In 1905, a small group called Jewish Territorial Organization then broke away from the rest of the Jews; Israel Zangiliwi their leader said they would establish a homeland wherever possible. However, the small group was dissolved in 1925. Since the Eastern European Jews insisted on Palestine and all the other attempts had failed, the Zionist Movement decided to focus on Palestine.
Avineri, Shlomo. Herzl: Theodore Herzl and the Foundation of the Jewish State . 2014.
Avineri reports about the arrival of the ‘second Alliya’ in Palestine; he posits that it took place in 2004. At the same time, the Zionist Movement had inspired many Zionists movements; this caused many immigrants to arrive in Palestine, ready for the conquest. The Jews stated that they wanted liberation from social injustices that made them politically helpless and economically inferior. Albeit the Zionist Movement tried to get the new immigrants jobs, the settlers had no training in agricultural work, and they had poor physical stamina. Consequently, the quorum could not compete with the natives. Arabs also refused to hire them since they could not produce as much as was expected and they could not speak Arabic. Nevertheless, the Zionist movement kept pushing for the rights of the immigrants, stating that Arabs should only hire Jewish workers. However, the Russians claimed that the Jews were selfish since they only considered their plight while dismissing that of the natives. Nevertheless, the Zionist movement explained that the conquest of labor did not arise out of selfishness but out of the desire to rebuild the Jewish people. Kibbutz Collective Settlements were then started to help overcome the Arab laborers’ preferences in Palestine. Unknown to many at the time of the group’s formation was the fact that the group would latter provides military and political leadership.
In his thesis, Avineri says that although the Jewish population grew, the Arab population grew more as by 1914 the ratio was 500, 000 Arabs to 100, 000 Jews. The Arabs opposed the settling of the Jewish people as they fathomed sinister motives in the latter’s actions. More Zionists arrived in Palestine; they bought large pieces of land and evicted the tenant farmers. Although the farmers had received compensations for the land, they claimed that he land was still their possession as per the traditions; hence, they tried to take it back by force. At the same time, the displacement of watchmen by the conquest of labor movement efforts also resulted in violence from the Arabs. After World War One, the British rule took over Palestine and declared the desire to offer a national home for the Jews in Palestine. The Zionist had been of great help in helping the British side win over the Ottoman Empire; therefore, the British were indebted.
Bibliography
Avineri, Shlomo. Herzl: Theodore Herzl and the Foundation of the Jewish State . 2014.
Eidelberg, Paul. "Foundations of the State of Israel: An Analysis of Israel's Declaration of Independence." Judaism 36, no. 4 (Fall87 1987): 391. Academic Search Complete , EBSCO host (accessed November 17, 2017).
ʻEvrôn, Bôʻaz. Jewish State or Israeli Nation? Bloomington u.a: Indiana Univ. Press, 1995.
Goldstein, Yossi. 2015. "REFLECTIONS OF ZION." Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 14, no. 2: 229-245. Academic Search Complete , EBSCO host (accessed November 17, 2017).
Honig-Parnass, Tikva. False Prophets of Peace: Liberal Zionism and the Struggle for Palestine . Chicago, Illinois: Haymarket Books, 2011.
Masalha, Nur. The Bible and Zionism: Invented Traditions, Archaeology, and Post-Colonialism in Palestine-Israel . London: Zed, 2007.
Sofer, Sasson. Zionism and the foundations of Israeli diplomacy . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
