Classification of animals into groups depends on the similar characteristics they share. Each group is given specific names to distinguish it from the rest, thus enabling people to communicate about animals (National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, 2016). The animal classification is derived from a universal animal kingdom, which places living organisms into different kingdoms namely; animals, plants, bacteria, fungi, and single-cell organisms (protists). The animal kingdom is subdivided into 40 phylum groups. The two main phylum groups are vertebrates and invertebrates. The phylum group Chordata constitutes the most common classification of animals and vertebrates. It contains 43,700 species with the majority concentrated in the subphylum Vertebrata (National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, 2016).The subphylum Vertebratacontains the most commonly known group of animals, which include mammals, fish, birds, amphibians, and reptiles. A chordate possesses a notochord (spinal cord), a backbone, and a skull enclosing the brain (Mometrix Academy, 2014). The endoskeleton in vertebrates serves two primary functions, to protect the central nervous system, and give support to the body structure. The endoskeleton gives vertebrates a competitive edge over other animals by allowing animals’ fast locomotion and protection of internal organs. With very few exemptions, chordates are animals with bilaterally symmetric bodies that are differentiated into head, trunk, and some form of a tail end(Dore, 2017). Fish are cold-blooded animals that live in water; they have streamlined bodies covered with scales. They have separate sexes, but fertilization is external. Examples include tuna, trout, and salmons (cK12, n.d). Amphibians are a group of vertebrate animals that can live in both land and aquatic environments (National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, 2016). Amphibians and reptiles are quite similar and difficult to differentiate. They, however, have some inherent differences. Whereas amphibians have smooth and moist skin, reptiles have hard scaly skin. Amphibians are smaller compared to the majority of reptiles. Amphibians and reptiles are poikilotherms, which means their bodies are unable to maintain their temperature outside of the source of heat like mammals do. This means that they absorb heat from the environment around them to maintain their life functions. During the cold season, cold-blooded animals become inactive and go into hibernation or slow down their body processes in the process of diapause to survive longer. Mammals also are covered with hair and fur to help maintain heat, which amphibians and reptiles do not have. Amphibians are of separate sexes, and their fertilization for reproduction is external. Some examples of amphibians include toads, frogs, and salamanders. Reptiles live on both land and water. They can be identified as animals with tough cornified skin or epidermal scales. They are of separate sexes, and fertilization happens internally. Examples include snakes, crocodiles, and turtles.
Birds are warm-blooded animals. Sexes are different, and fertilization is internal (National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, 2016). They have hollow bones with air cavities to reduce weight in flight except for flightless birds. Examples include crow, pigeons, and hawks. Mammals are among the most dominant of species in the animal kingdom (National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, 2016). They are present in most habitats and are warm-blooded (cK12, n.d). Their skin is covered with hair or fur. They have separate sexes, and fertilization is internal. Their unique characteristic is the presence of milk-producing mammary glands. They include human beings, lions, and kangaroos, among others. Zoology is the branch of biology devoted to the study of animal science (National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, 2016). It focuses on areas ranging from the structural features of organisms to the cellular unit of life (Mometrix Academy, 2014). It is both a descriptive and analytical science (Dore, 2017). Zoologists are interested in the study of animals for the benefit of improving animals’ quality of life and direct benefits to humans. Zoology has several disciplines, which include:
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Morphology
Morphology in zoology is concerned with the study of forms and structural makeup of organisms. It focuses on the specific functions of the structural features of organisms (Dore, 2017). Morphologists explore functional relationships between animal shapes and structures.
Physiology
Physiology is the scientific study of the functions and mechanisms within living organisms. It is concerned with the investigation into the physical and chemical functions of animals (cK12, n.d). Physiologists explore the genetics, behavioral and biological structure of animals.
Immunology
It is the study of organisms’ immune systems. It focuses on the body’s recognition of microbes by specific immune systems(Dore, 2017).
Pathology
Pathology is a specialty that focuses on the diagnosis of diseases based on the analysis of body fluids and tissue(Dore, 2017). Pathology is the manifestation of disease in the body through structural changes in soft tissue and bone.
There are other specialized terminologies, which apply to the majority of fields in zoology. They generally describe animal characteristics and nature (cK12, n.d). They include;
Ecology
Ecology deals with the interactions between animals and their environment. It considers that processes that occur in the population have particular impacts and influences on biodiversity (cK12, n.d).
Reproduction
Reproduction is a fundamental aspect of all life. Every organism is in existence because of reproduction. Offspring are produced from their parents through a biological process of mating.
Revolutionary Relationship among Animals
There exist three distinct relationships between animals namely mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism (Dore, 2017). In mutualistic relationships, two or more different groups of animals benefit from an association. An example is an Egyptian plover and a crocodile. The plover eats the bits of meat from a crocodile’s open mouth, and the crocodile ‘appreciates’ the dental work by not eating the plover(Mometrix Academy, 2014). Another example is the oxpecker bird which lands on the backs of rhinos or zebras and eats the ticks off their backs; the bird gets food while the mammal is rid of pests (cK12, n.d). Pets and domestic animals fall under a mutualistic relationship as they get food from humans in exchange for a specified function. The Commensalism relationship details a situation where one animal benefits from a symbiotic relationship with another, which does not benefit from the association (Mometrix Academy, 2014). An example is the remora fish which attaches itself to a shark and is transported to other locations without using its energy to swim (Dore, 2017). Another example is cattle egrets which are birds that follow livestock and eat up the insects that are stirred up by the movements of cattle through land fields (cK12, n.d). A parasitic relationship is one between two animal species where one lives off the other its host and derives nutrients from it causing harm or possibly death (National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, 2016). A parasitic animal lives on or in the body of a host. An example of a parasite is the tapeworm which inhabits a host's internal organ and drains the nutrients from their system. Another example is aphids which suck the sap out of plant cells killing them. Every animal has internal and external features, which are specialized for specific functions, either survival or reproduction or other relevant functions(Mometrix Academy, 2014). A large amount of information about the structure of organisms and their functions can be learned by studying the organism’s environment(Dore, 2017). The five significant vertebrae classes from the animal kingdom have different organ systems that aid in their survival in different habitats. All the animals under the phylum Chordata possess a spinal cord that connects their nervous system from the peripheral parts of the body to the brain. The function of the nervous system in all animals is to maintain homeostasis, which is the normal functioning of the body (cK12, n.d). The five major groups of animals have an almost similar internal organ functions, that is the nervous, excretory, reproductive, and digestive systems (National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, 2016). The muscular and skeletal structures vary with animals and usually function to protect the inner organs of the animals. All animals in the phylum Chordata are symmetrical, that is; they can be divided into two mirrored halves from the head down the middle. Mammals are warm-blooded terrestrial animals. Warm-blooded animals maintain their temperature through metabolism even when the temperature in the environment changes(Dore, 2017). The body of most mammals is covered with fur or hair to keep body temperatures in cold climates optimum(Mometrix Academy, 2014). Mammals give birth to young ones and therefore have mammary glands with the specific function of nurturing their offspring. They have an internal digestive tract and organs that assimilate food into the bloodstream. Mammals are the only group of animals with teeth specialized for different functions. Mammals are adapted to living in different environments including cold icy regions and the sea. Like mammals, birds are also terrestrial animals. Birds lack teeth but have differentiated and specialized beaks for feeding; some have hard beaks for cracking nuts or sharp ones for tearing through the flesh (cK12, n.d). Except for flightless birds, the majority have wings with strong muscles adapted for flight(Dore, 2017). The bodies of birds are covered with feathers that keep them warm and are also streamlined for flight (National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, 2016). Carnivorous birds have specialized talons for grappling and tearing the flesh of their prey. Amphibians are both aquatic and terrestrial animals (National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, 2016). Most amphibians start their lives in marine environments breathing through gills and the skin, and later move to land masses and breathe through nostrils(Dore, 2017). They have organs that secrete mucous to keep their skin moist (Mometrix Academy, 2014). Their skin is specialized to camouflage in their environments. Amphibians are cold-blooded. Their fertilization is done externally. They lay their eggs in water bodies to prevent them from drying up as they lack a fluid-filled sack surrounding the amnion. The majority of amphibians have four limbs adapted for locomotion. Reptiles are inherently cold-blooded but can regulate their blood temperature by resting on warm surfaces, a process known as thermoregulation (cK12, n.d). The reptile species are varied and, therefore, have different structural compositions and functions. Most reptiles are four-legged with a few exceptions like snakes. Snakes crawl on their bellies using muscular contractions. Their general characteristic is that their bodies are covered with hard, dry scales (Mometrix Academy, 2014). Some reptiles shed their skin through the process of molting. They reproduce through internal fertilization and laying eggs. Zoology as a biological science uses quantitative research to study life and living organisms using mathematical and computational approaches (National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, 2016). Zoology in most instances uses inferential statistics methodology to conclude from data(Dore, 2017). A hypothesis is used to explain a phenomenon or predict a relationship in research. Hypothesis formulation in zoology depends on the nature of the research(cK12, n.d). It requires a specific testable and predictable statement guided by theoretical guidance or existing evidence (Mometrix Academy, 2014). Formulation of a hypothesis in zoology will, therefore, depend on prior knowledge about the variables under study, and the statements made with the guidance of theoretical knowledge in biology. Testing a hypothesis entails interpreting results concerning the stated premise. The results will either confirm or deny the hypothesis. Quantitative measurements and statistical data have been widely used in the evolutionary biology of animals. Statistics give an interplay between the animal populations and their ecosystems, as well as how their physical and morphological characteristics have influenced their survival over a given period. The correlation and interactions of different species comprise the biological ecosystem. Researchers and scientists formulate questions and hypotheses every day regarding the interrelationship existing among the same species and between different species. In an attempt to obtain significant and relevant statistical data on animal species, different research methods such as the text mining method and computational analysis might be used. Text mining involves the extraction of information and data from online and offline databases, analysis, and interpretation of this information. The evolutionary history of a species can be tracked by analyzing bioinformatics data on the genome of the species of interest. Quantitative analysis assists in defining species and the variations between species. Hypothesis testing explains the patterns observed in different animals. Animal testing and research have led to enormous achievements in understanding life processes and eradicating of diseases such as polio. The Biomedical Primate Research Center (BPRC) is the largest animal testing facility in Europe and was reported to use approximately 200 monkeys annually in its research. The essence of animal models in research is highlighted by the report released by the Dutch Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority in 2013. According to the report, a total of 1,572,534 animals were used between 1978 – 2013 across all research fields in the Netherlands (Bressers et al., 2017) There are several types of research that have hypothesized a direct correlation between the disease processes and mechanism of action of drugs in animal models and human beings. The University of Cambridge animal laboratory has about 5000 mice that are used in cancer research. According to Professor Gerard Evan of the Biochemistry department at Cambridge, mice provide the best experimental system for understanding the biology of cancer in humans (Fighting cancer: Animal Research at Cambridge, 2015). While animal testing might not be perfect, they still provide the best alternative for developing safe and efficacious drugs that can be used in humans.
Zoology in the Context of Human Knowledge and Experience on a Global Scale
Human attitudes toward animals are becoming an increasing concern. Animals are an integral part of the association and even survival of humans (National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, 2016). The study of Zoology helps us to understand humans better too. The famous archeologist, Dr. Louis Leakey’s goals were to study the origins of man and his evolution, for which he employed people such as Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey, and BirutėGaldikas to study the primates. Very little was known about the evolution of humankind and their relationship with the hominid species before the mid-20th century. Together with his team, Dr. Leakey set the precedence in the now widely researched science of zoology(Radhakrishna,2018). Their studies on primatology significantly contributed to the understanding of human behavior. Following Dr. Leakey’s research and findings on the relationship and similarity between humankind and animal species, human attitudes towards animals are increasingly becoming a center of interest, with reference to areas of research, conservation, welfare, and domestication. However, human attitudes towards animals vary depending on the species. There is a tendency to be inclined and receptive towards some animal species and be withdrawn from other species, especially reptiles and invertebrates. This variation in preference is in part attributed to the existing similarity between humans and the species(Radhakrishna, 2018). For example, humans are more receptive to birds and mammals. This could be because they are all warm-blooded. Furthermore, humans share a lot of similarities with mammals because they are of the same kingdom. The impact of this preference is evidenced in animal conservation and welfare interests globally. Beyond phylogenetic similarities, there are other factors that are also considered in determining preference and human attitudes toward animal species. These include the monetary values and utility of the species. Wildlife attracts tourists and boosts economies. Studying animal diseases aids in medical advancements(Dore, 2017). Therefore, zoology, which studies animal life, comes before such leaps. In the past, some animals have gone extinct due to the failure of humans to appreciate the value of animal life(cK12, n.d). The animal kingdom provides a balance in the environment which has been developed over millions of years, so preserving that balance is essential for the continued success of the environment. If one population is eradicated, it affects another population which in turn affects another. This hurts the environment which we humans still rely on despite how evolved we claim to be. Science museums, parks, zoos, sanctuaries, aquariums, and science centers constitute the major setting for informal learning about animal life. Zoologists conduct experiments on animals giving humans insight into how life processes (Mometrix Academy, 2014). It is an essential discipline in the discovery of potential risks and diseases, which humans can contract from animals. It helps in understanding the evolution, behavior, and adaptation of animals in their habitats. Consequently, understanding the value of animal life promotes the preservation of their natural habitat and general environmental conservation.
References
Dore Arden. (2017) “Animal Partnerships” Retrieved 10 Nov. 2018 https://www.factmonster.com/science/animals/animal-partnerships
cK12. (n.d). Vertebrate Structure and Function. https://www.ck12.org/biology/vertebrate-structure-and-function/lesson/Vertebrate-Structure-and-Function-Advanced-BIO-ADV/
Mometrix Academy. (2014). Mutualism, Commensalism, and Parasitism https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dF2jWCE6gJc
National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science. (2016). Animal Structures and What They Mean. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iwGgc73Dv0o
Radhakrishna, S. (2018). Rethinking Animal-Human Boundaries: Insights from Primatology. http://125.22.40.134:8082/jspui/bitstream/123456789/2109/1/Radhakrishna%20-%20Rethinking%20animal-human%20boundaries.pdf
Fighting cancer: Animal research at Cambridge. (2015) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CK78IXTRH0s
Bressers, S., van den Elzen, H., Gräwe, C., van den Oetelaar, D., Postma, P., & Schoustra, S. (2017). The Future of Animal Research-Is it achievable or even desirable to replace animal research with alternatives? Retrieved from https://theses.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/123456789/4605/Bressers%2C_Steffi_1.pdf?sequence=1
