Power conflict is defined as the disagreement involving at least two individuals or a group relating to specific issues. The conflict could also arise in a situation where one party observes its concerns being opposed or it is being affected negatively by the other side. The power struggle immensely depicts different meaning concerning the condition as well as the circumstances. Due to the perceived frustration or being about to be frustrated, power conflicts may lead to an opportunity, a journey or war. In an organization, there consist stakeholders both inside and outside. Each of the stakeholders has their objectives and interests which occasionally overlay those of other groups (Boateng, 2014). The interests and aspirations of the different stakeholders are not the same therefore leading to power conflict which comes about when a particular group pursues their concern at the expense of the other team. In this research, the power struggle will be broadly outlined and its involvement inability to violate and control resources of others and bring desired behaviors.
The conflict for power or power struggle has been experienced within many disciplines like political and social sciences. Research argues that combined perception of control and dependency as the primary element of explaining the actual world conflicts that include ethnic conflicts, interpersonal conflicts, welfare as well as international conflicts. The argument basis around the dependency caused by the desire for particular resources, with the concept of power being the central part of conflict practices and impacts both the commencement of conflict and the consequences of the conflict incidence (Khan & Khan, 2011). Likewise, other arguments outline the struggle for power and position as the central apparatuses in the explanation of social conflicts. The purposeful struggle which is referred to as social strife involves mutual actors who make use of their social power to overthrow or eliminate those who challenge them and attain resources, power, status as well as other rare standards.
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The existence of conflict to attain power, just like in sociology can also be witnessed across other disciplines. For instance, negotiations of power struggles can be witnessed in effort describing the conflict that exists between economic class systems for power in addition to resources, while the poor struggle to rise and the rich trying to preserve their control. Similarly, conflict description is witnessed amongst political functions, states, nations as well as people of different ethnic tribes. Struggle for power has also been seen in numerous areas of organizational activities and management literature which include work on individual intention, group, and leadership besides concession (Lindhult, 2011). For instance, conflict of power occurring within organization and groups is explained when a personal desire and energy look for power as well as control over others. Therefore, the potentiality of the power struggle within the groups is supported by the significant research on power as significant human influence.
The work on power intentions argues that individuals strive for social power or else power over others in addition to personal power, with the individual interest being to act for own gain. The need for power is argued as the central motivator of human behavior in association to the need for connection and the need for accomplishment. When a person experiences the power and attains satisfaction, the individual will be socialized into having powerful motivation. In support of the motivational power need, studies have established that persons with a high demand for power are anxious at having an impact on other people and are known to seek and acquire approved social power (Kervenoael, 2014). The need for power is also associated with the occupation of higher and significant positions in organizations. The persons who experience control are even more competitive, contribute more to debates, occupy positions of governance in addition to making a lot of important endeavors.
The idea and desire for power and higher status in the political scene have been examined as the organizational politics. The corporate politics are the activities that take place within an organization to obtain, advance and make use of power and available resources to acquire individual's desired outcomes. The power may also be used to accomplish something and undertake activities that expand the power which is already possessed or lays the ground on how it can be exercised. The organization, political power may often be used by individuals to focus on their interest in obtaining power and such a political behavior would have an adverse outcome. The existence of conflict over power has been recognized with lower status persons making moves to increase their status while higher status makes more dominating steps in an attempt to maintain or improve their influence. A power struggle can also arise due to lack of authority and leadership where the struggle for power may emerge in a group. Such power struggles are even more likely to occur in a group where members are of equal status or power in the attempt for leadership (Fisher, 2000). Where there is an attempt by leaders with higher power overestimating their status to influence other members in a group their control is contested.
Currently, it is clear that the majority of people are in the process of struggling to accomplish more in their workplaces. In the present world, social status is mostly measured by the person's profession, which makes it necessary for individuals to continually need to attain a higher and more influential position within a particular organization. The need to have more power than the fellow workers is the most significant concern in prominent organizations which in most cases lead to numerous workplace conflicts (Gatlin, Wysocki, Kepner, Farnsworth & Clark, 2009). When it comes to the relationship between individuals, organizations seem to be virtually problematic. In most cases, individuals who are not familiar with each other and not like-minded as well as others who do not correspond with each other are made to work together in an organization. The team is expected to work together in harmony and to be productive despite their differences. The organization would have been more successful, and the employees appreciate their job in their workplace if the need for competition amongst colleagues would be taken out of the institute and substituted with the urge to attain more as a team.
However, the need for power is an issue that lies in the center of organizations. Power gives an individual ability to direct others on what to do under their supervision. People are changed by power and those who rise to top positions in the companies and other institutions lean towards their own goals and needs neglecting those of others. The individuals positioned within the group are less polite, and when they are threatened, they act with aggressiveness to guard their positions of authority. In prominent organizations, there is the rise of competition due to the need of power with less emphasis on achievement while smaller organizations seem to advocate for achievement for persons tend to work as a team to achieve the same objective (Gatlin, Wysocki, Kepner, Farnsworth & Clark, 2009). In organizations, conflict and the need for power are seen to go hand in hand thus the necessity to encourage on avoidance of conflict in workplaces.
A Power struggle has been stated as a conflict process of social interaction. The struggle involves a claim to resources, status, and power, favorites as well as needs. However, it is stated that, even if the power conflict is a natural occurrence in social associations, it can, all the same, be managed within organizations.
View of Power Conflict
Traditional View of Power Conflict
In the traditional school view, the power struggle is seen as harmful to the organization as it is referred to be the form of unusual behavior which needs to be regulated and changed if the objective of the institution is to be attained. In the view, power conflict can have tragic outcomes for some individuals and adverse effect on the performance of the organization. The management relied deeply on developing organizational arrangements that would stipulate the regulation, rules, tasks, processes and expert relationships so that in case of a power conflict crop up, the laid down rules and regulations would ascertain and correct the problem of the conflict (Thakore, 2013). The broad view was to avoid a malfunction within the group or organization.
Human Relation View of Power Conflict
The view accords a similar notion, of conflict being avoidable through the creation of an environment of trust and goodwill. Organization management should always be a concern for avoidance of power struggles where possible and quick resolution if the conflict occurs.
The Interactionist View Struggles of Power
Interactionist, view power struggles as a sign of healthy institution. According to the view, a good manager or leader should not eradicate conflict but should try to regulate the levels of the conflict and keep it from wasting the energy of his workers. The manager or leader should also accept to be challenged when they are thought to be wrong as that is healthy in a working environment. However, there should be a keen observation on the level at which the conflict will escalate to avoid unnecessary effects (Thakore, 2013). This approach of conflict encourages a regulated level of power struggles within a group or organization to promote self-criticism, innovation, and change to prevent tolerance for harmony in addition to the status quo.
Integrationist View of Power Conflict
The perspective of the view argues that conflicts are not only seen as good or bad, but some conflicts are necessary for efficient performance of individuals in a group.
Forms of Power Struggles in Organisations
In an organization power struggles can take several different forms;
Interpersonal Power Struggles
Interpersonal power conflict deals with the interaction of human issues in a group or institution. Conflict amongst individuals may arise from many personal differences with the aim of attaining power; the differences include attitude, personalities, perception, value and other variances. Two individuals debating each other aggressively on the merit of status and job promotion is an example of interpersonal power conflict.
Intrapersonal Power Conflict
Though its effect can significantly influence organizational operations, interpersonal power conflict is internal and is the most difficult form of conflict to examine and manage. The struggle primarily involves two mismatched tendencies and emerges when a stimulus induces two dissimilar and unharmonious inclinations, and the individual is obligated to differentiate between the trends. In the situation, a person can be influenced by frustration and let their conflict state to be conveyed in a series of behavioral approaches ranging from apathy and destructive behavior. It is important to scrutinize personal view and make use of techniques that lessen anxiety for such consequential actions to be avoided and to increase consonance amongst individual behavior and requirements of the organization (Thakore, 2013). In intrapersonal power conflict, a person must choose between two unattractive and detrimental alternatives, leading to perceived pressure from the incompatible goals and expectations. An example of intrapersonal power conflict is job transferred to another place with undesirable location or to have the employment terminated, here conflict occurs when a person must make a decision that has both negative and positive outcomes.
Intergroup Power Conflict
The power struggles occur between different teams or groups; the conflict is common in organizations and may arise as a result of the relationship or task. Example of intergroup power struggles can include manufacturing as well as marketing in organizations. To minimize the power conflict, promote creativity and efficient operations, task forces, as well as cross-functional teams, are used.
Intragroup Power Conflict
Power struggles that occur within teams or groups are known as intragroup power conflicts which may arise from relationship conflict or task conflict. The content of decision making, the involvement of different viewpoint, opinions and ideas may lead to power disagreement between group members or individuals. The procedure of distribution of resources, procedures or plans and interpretation of facts is also a source of a power struggle.
Interorganisational Power Conflict
Competition can heighten between two or more companies giving rise to a power struggle and a conflict referred to as inter-organizational power conflict. The difference in ranked levels, like in the case of salespersons and supervisors may lead to power struggles while disagreement of individuals who have the same level of the managers also results in struggles (Thakore, 2013). The underestimated organization feels powerless and alienated, scarce resources and disagreements on benefits, working conditions and salaries also lead to power struggles.
Sources of Power Conflict
There is controversy among the scholars all through the history of the study of power conflict, whether the forceful conduct is an inherent human feature or is a response to political, societal and economic issues. Our deep-rooted biology causes power conflict according to some scholars. The approach is described as an individual characteristic concept that emphases on acts of an individual rather than the acts context. According to scholars view power conflict is believed to be entrenched in our simple nature just as animals. Due to it being a biological fact that is held by us but not part of social life, power conflict is inevitable (Thakore, 2013). The current writers use the assertion and the nineteenth-century idea that stressed on the role of competition and conflict in the entire human societies. They explore power conflict as part of universal struggle urged by inborn aggressive inclinations, taking the notion of survival of the fittest as the basis. Ethnology is the new theoretical perspective that supports the approach that emphasizes the genetic occurrence of social conduct. There is a further illustration by scholars on how a given person could behave peacefully or violent at different times and circumstances. Ethnographic works have been effectively used by anthropologists to disprove the biological created justification of the sources of power conflicts and show its insufficiency.
Different paths to treat the sources of power struggle have been taken by even those who have defied the innate nature of human aggression. Another point of debate is whether or not material ends are the final causes of struggles. Scholars assert that material causes are the final arbiter of human behavior. However, those who oppose this view argue that the materialistic, as well as deterministic concluding argument cause, is insufficient to clarify the fundamental changing aspects of specific power struggles. It leaves no possibility for consideration of human resolution making as it is unable to relate material cause through cultural elements.
Through the study of power conflict, three sources have been identified; structural power conflict arises out of the requirement to manage the interdependence amongst different organizational sub-divisions. The role conflict is a power struggle that emanates from collections of prescribed behavior, and the resource power conflict is the conflict for organizational resources impending from interest groups competition (Struzinski, 2016). It has been indicated that an understanding of the cause of power struggle expands the possibility of effective power conflict management. Main factors that are viewed as the source of conflicts include;
i) Communication; misunderstanding and other communication concepts may lead to conflict.
ii) Structural; these are conflicts related to the organizational roles.
iii) Personal; individual differences may cause conflicts.
However method of conflict management which is suitable in one case may not essentially be appropriate when used in a conflict caused by another source. A different perspective which hints conflict source in an organization to the unit of study involved is party to the conflict. They are the initiators, sustainers and observe a conflict and their characteristics stipulate the situation which affects the progress of a power conflict and defines the method of its management. There are power conflicts that occur as a result of interaction between groups, those that base their relationship between individuals and conflicts that originate with the person. In such situation, an individual may experience frustration and permit their conflict state to be displayed in various behavioral strategies stretching from boredom, apathy, excessive drinking as well as destructive behavior.
According to researchers, conflicts are directly associated with power struggles and can occur achievement goals in an organization are evaded. There is also a belief that there is awareness by individuals on factors that create conflicts like scarceness, barrier, and unsuited goals or interest. When one party avoids the others interest and achievements that can be a source of a power struggle. Where processes are well cleared, and the situation is stable, pronounced is that causes of power struggles are not greatly related to objective and goal realization in conditions of routine conduct. Conflict variables in these situations are possibly more related to character, autonomy motives, position and functional interdependence.
Reasons for justification of escalation of power conflict include the growth of departments where individuals lose contact with other departments or different thinking ideas from the other departments. The establishment of a variety of profit centers should consist of an integrated business structure, and enhance emphasis in the financial procedures as a tool for the inspiration of managers end up creating power conflicts. Recruiting reinforce the isolation of departments due to the cumulating and rise of emphasis in functional concentration politics of promotion thus generating power struggles. Freedom of speech is most beneficial to the general society, but more opportunity for workers showing criticism amongst each other in an organizational context can be transformed into power conflict. The pressure created by consumers demanding lower prices, products of better quality and services makes departments work more effectively resulting in conflicts amongst departments.
The uneven degree of interdependence is another reason for the occurrence of power conflict affecting the trust level and obligation of the teams. When groups have dissimilar levels of dependence amongst themselves, asymmetric interdependence transpires. These happen when persons from the same team depend on individuals who in turn express independence concerning them. Individuals who are dependent on one another and the other hand are interdependence brings about the state of relationship with total reliance which results in a less conflict situation. However, the ones with asymmetric dependence are said to have high levels of struggles. In general, the independent team conforms itself not to alter the situation and accept the power that leads thus having smaller struggles in highly dependent relationships.
Team members can also be a source of conflict, where diverse cultural values are brought to the work teams. Members of the team also possess different attitudes resulting in different goals for members of the group. Different needs for group teams may not necessarily be met, which may result in frustrations that escalate to power struggles. Differing interpretation of the same information can erupt due to group members having different perceptions (Lindhult, 2011). Besides other studies have identified other sources of conflict comprising: objectives and priority meaning, political communication, persona, procedures of administration, allocation of resources, governance and structure of reward as well as official opinion.
Although there are many causes of power struggles in any organization, individual power conflict usually occur when a person is not sure about expectations in a task expected to be done. Failure by management to define the tasks within a working group will lead to power struggle due to the pressure that is role-related. In addition, literature has also laid down diverse origins of organizational differences with each having its effect variation.
i) When an individual is experiencing personal stress, it can be a source of interpersonal disagreement.
ii) The disagreement over one's title character in the institute.
iii) Selfish objectives that conflict groups and individuals against each other.
iv) Differences arising from impending common problem from different directions.
v) Interaction and communication breakdowns lead to long power struggles.
vi) External pressure is foremost to internal pressure seeking to adapt in internal order.
Managing Power Conflict
There is need to manage disputes to avoid escalation of power conflict, and the management involves dealing or removing causes of conflict. The approaches and strategies for managing power struggles are different from the reasons, source, and perspective. Whether undertaken by the involved parties in the struggles or takes the involvement of outside party intervention, power struggle management impacts the whole structure of conflict so that the destructive components of the conflict process are contained (Fisher, 2000). The control helps organizations to possess an incompatible goal of finding a solution to their power struggles and minimizes disruption as well as providing satisfactory and acceptable solutions. There are different strategies for managing conflict;
Achieving personal goals - a person possesses a conflict due to the individual goal that conflicts with another person's intention. A goal or achievement may be of great importance to a person or else it may be of little significance to him/her.
Keeping a good relationship with others - the effective interaction between individuals need to be advocated in future as the relationship may be essential to a person or else of slight importance to him/her.
Avoidance - instead of resolving conflict, persons tend to ignore it, individuals lean towards giving up their objectives and display submissive behavior creating a lose-lose situation. Rather than face the power conflict, individuals believe it is easier to pull out from a struggle. The primary objective of restraint is to delay the avoidance or withdraw from conflict help to maintain a relationship that would have been hurt by power struggles. The overuse of the strategy is disadvantageous as conflict will remain unresolved, but where confrontation will hurt a working relationship, the style is appropriate for use. In another instance, the strategy can be effective when assembling information is essential than an instant decision.
Smoothing- when an individual or group is willing to yield to the other through conciliation, the management is referred as smoothing. High Concern for other group interest combined with low worry for individuals group results in smoothing. The smoothing power struggle management encourages human relationship where persons disregard their objectives and give into others as they observe the relationship being of great importance than their goals. The unassertive and cooperative behavior of individuals smooth creates a win/lose condition and level the fear of harming the relationship accepted and liked by others. They believe that people cannot create a discussion without damaging a relationship makes individuals think of avoiding power struggles in courtesy of coherence. Continuation of conflict is anxious with individuals who are afraid of hurting someone or ruining relationships. Although giving in may not be productive, smoothing style is beneficial in maintaining a relationship. Other times when it is appropriate to use smoothing strategy is when there is limited time, stability and harmony are appreciated as well as changes are essential to the accommodator.
Forcing - when a situation arises with an attempt to acquire complete dominance by an individual or a group, the resolution of a conflict is mainly used of aggression by parties involved. When conflicts are settled by a person winning and another loss, there is the creation of win-lose situation with the winning party giving a sense of attainment and superiority. The losing team has a feeling of weakness, failure in addition to inadequacy. Correct decision by the individual result to the achievement of outcome without compromise but incorrect decision led to hostility and resentfulness against the person involved. The strategy is most suitable when there is quick need of vital action and where unpopular action on essential issues needs implementation.
Confrontation - is an interpersonal conflict handling approach which refers to robust cooperative and confident behavior. The tendency to see power conflict as natural, helpful and which lead to the creative solution should be familiar to individuals who use confrontation style. Maximum joint results are desired by individuals using confrontation strategy thus trust exhibition to others lead to resolution of conflict and the satisfaction of every party involved (Thakore, 2013). The strategy of confrontation is most applied when looking for an integrative solution in a situation where both sets of distress are too significant to be compromised when in a learning objective, used to incorporate concerns to gain consensus as well as working over feelings that have contingent with the relationship.
Organization structures power conflict resolution - most power conflict in organizations are created by structures within. Failure to manage the struggles properly will destruct the organization. Various ways are used to manage conflicts that are structural based:
i) Superordinate goals: a more critical organizational goal for both parties that are involved in a conflict which surpasses their individual or team goal is referred as the superordinate goal. An individual or a single group cannot achieve goals alone, but the achievement requires both parties cooperation. Conversion of power conflict to a peaceful interaction between departments is achieved through a superordinate goal which also develops a favorable approach in addition to the achievement of mutually acceptable solutions.
ii) Reduce interdependence between groups: a major cause of power conflict is interdependency. Poorly arranged and defined interdependencies need to be identified and clarified through combining workflow. The design of the workflow is to increase or eliminate interdependencies entirely with the other option being to make both units independent of one another.
iii) Mutual problem solving: by increasing collaboration, the mutual problem-solving technique is mostly used. The conflicting parties are required to come together for analysis and definition of the problem after which they understand the perspective of each other and arrive at a conclusion with an unbiased solution through shared interaction.
iv) Formal authority: the use of top authority to solve power struggle between groups can be made through formal authority strategy. The use of MBWA (management by wandering around) technique helps the management on how to convert conflict within an organization (Thakore, 2013). The role of the arbitrator, as well as integrator, is taken up by the excellent manager.
v) Increase interactions: more opportunities should be provided to the employees to interact with each other within the subunits. The interaction between the different parties helps to develop a better understanding of each other's functioning ways. The interactions also help participants to discover their common problems, interests, and significances.
vi) Bargain and negotiation: bargaining and negotiation help to manage the inevitable power struggles in organizations so that they become functional and constructive. The negotiation process involves discussions that are open to conflict solutions, and the outcome is shared with both parties who work toward a solution that is mutually beneficial.
vii) Mediator: the most common form of power conflict resolution mediation, consist of an unbiased and independent individual facilitating groups or persons to reach a way out that is satisfactory to everyone. The parties involved are helped to make progress in solving their differences, but the mediation does not determine the outcome or make judgments. The level of trust given to the mediator by both parties determines the success of the mediation.
viii) Conciliation and consultation: they are less official than mediation and appear more voluntary with evidence of managing power conflicts because of their non-insistent nature.
Conclusion
Power conflict is inevitable in organizations, competition, comparison and conflicts involving units is always present in institutions. The disputes may result in functional or dysfunctional consequences hence the need to manage through exploring methods and techniques for management. If managed effectively, power conflict can be healthy; the management of struggles requires an arrangement of analyses in addition to human skills. Every individual participating in a project should learn to resolve conflicts within the project efficiently (Thakore, 2013). For proper management of power struggles the source of the conflict should be analyzed. By addressing the source of the conflict and not just the symptoms help resolve the conflict permanently. Individuals should concentrate on building environment that aims at reducing destructive power struggle and deal with small differences before they escalate.
References
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