Adult Education: How to Find the Right Program

QUESTION 1 

Please compare the LIBERAL and PROGRESSIVE philosophical perspectives in adult education. The following should be included as you discuss the two philosophical perspectives: 

The purposes of the philosophical aspects of adult education. 

The liberal philosophical perspective in adult education is essential in developing the intellectual capability of the mind. In developing the intellectual power of the student, the aspect points out that the role of teaching ensures that learners are equipped with new skills and technical know-how. The ability not only answers to the pressing needs of the society, but it is also critical in building the learners to be resourceful in the workplace. On the other hand, the perspective serves to highlight the role of adult education as being the source of literal expansion (Long, 2018). It ensures that the learner's intellectual power is widened to broadcast morality, mental development, and spirituality. In other words, the perspective is essential in pointing out the role of adult education in offering a holistic approach towards the enlightenment of the learners. 

The progress philosophical perspective, on the other hand, is instrumental in the transmission of culture and societal structures to promote social change. In this aspect, adult education is viewed as a tool for promoting social change in the fact that it supports societal enlightenment. Learners are taught on some of the basic yet most essential ways of answering to the pressing societal needs (Long, 2018). The perspective highlights the role of adult education as being a means to give the learners practical knowledge and problem-solving skills necessary to reform society. Adult education is not only a means to gain professional expertise needed to increase one's intellectual scope, thereby giving them a competitive advantage in the workplace (Long, 2018). It is also a tool for bringing about the much needed social and political reforms, mainly by enlightening the learners on their rights and duties in society. 

Key scholars and historical adult educational events related to the philosophical perspectives. 

The Western Action is the source of authority in the liberal philosophical perspective. It defines the meaning of liberal learning as the learning obtained, or given to students for the sake of the acquisition of knowledge. According to the likes of Socrates, Aristotle and Plato, who are some of the most significant contributors of the liberal perspective, this type of learning are geared towards impacting the learner's rationale and intellectual expansion (Stubblefield, 2018). In this scenario, knowledge is passed through the traditional form of teaching, i.e., the use of classical humanism in the classroom taught through lectures, dialect and study groups. The philosophy is influenced historically by the oldest philosophy of education in the West. The perspective is rooted in the Classical Period of ancient Greece. 

The progressive philosophical perspective is influenced by the social situations in which the learner finds themselves, i.e., their culture. Driven by the prevailing social conditions, the view gives more weight to the need to adopt problem-solving skills by providing experienced-based education. The perspective thus focuses on the practicality of the knowledge given to answering the social issues (Stubblefield, 2018). The view focuses on providing problem-solving scientific methods of learning. The technique ensures that the learners are taught using mechanisms that allow them to incorporate their personal experiences as well to answer to the needs of the society. Spencer, Lindeman, as well as citizenship education, are some of the scholars and social movements that significantly contributed to the perspective whose origins are traced to the 16th century. At around this time, Europe had placed more emphasis on pragmatism and empiricism, which had begun as a severe movement in America in the early 1900s with Dewey leading the change (Stubblefield, 2018). The action aimed to empower the otherwise ignorant American societies on their rights and duties in the community, and politics at large. 

The roles of the learner related to the philosophical perspectives 

In liberalism form of adult education, the learner is identified as the renaissance party who is cultured. Cultured implies that the learner is expected to have background information and skills which they seek to advance. They are expected to have the necessary information in their area of study and can thus be able to contribute at that point of expertise (Arghode, Brieger, & McLean, 2017) . In this case, the learner's role is to seek knowledge. The perspective draws on the difference between knowledge and information, giving more emphasis on the acquisition of education as the mechanism of applying the data in more practical contexts. The learner is expected to be open to conceptuality and theoretical understanding, i.e., should be ready to use practically the knowledge not only in the workplace but also in the society through incorporating their skills to ensure holistic growth. 

The progressive philosophy draws on the role of the learner as being the seeker of their own needs. In other words, the learner's desire in education should be driven by their desire to transform the society, or an aspect of it they do not necessarily agree with (Arghode, Brieger, & McLean, 2017) . The learner thus has the role of developing a social concept in which they seek knowledge. Their interests and experiences are the key elements in learning as they dictate what area they should be enlightened about. This desire to expand one's expertise in a given field, thus points towards their unlimited potential to develop through education (Arghode, Brieger, & McLean, 2017) . The student is expected to be experience-driven and orientated in the aspect that their potential to grow by learning should be guided by their desire to have an impact on their experiences in society. 

The roles of the facilitator related to the philosophical perspectives 

The facilitator, also known as the teacher in the liberal aspect of philosophy is the expert. He has the role of transmitting the knowledge since the student, the pursuit of the learning is considered ignorant, thus needing enlightenment (Ince, 2017). As the expert, the facilitator acts as the authority. He has complete control over what information and knowledge are shared to the learners. The learners do not have a clear goal in their pursuit of education, i.e., they have the general motive to be knowledgeable, but this desire is not tied down to any single factor or experience. Thus they cannot decide what type of knowledge should be shared to them at that particular time frame of their course (Ince, 2017). The teacher, therefore, is mandated in developing the lesson plan in which he has total control over the learning process, thereby directing the learning process. 

However, in the progressive perspective, since the students have a clear and specific focus on their educational needs and goals, the facilitator acts as the organizer. He does not have the authority over what courses should be offered but instead organizes the course materials and school timetable according to the needs of the students (Ince, 2017). As an organizer, the facilitator does not have total control over the learning process. Instead, the teacher is tasked with the responsibility of guiding the learning proves through experiences that are educative, instigative, and stimulative. The facilitator also has the responsibility of evaluating the learning process and the students (Ince, 2017). The students are not graded, as the case in liberal learning, but are instead evaluated based on the concept they have acquired, and their readiness to apply these concepts to answer to the needs of the society. 

The sources of authority related to the philosophical perspectives 

The source of authority for the liberal perspective of the adult learning philosophy is the Western Canon. The Western Canon is the oldest philosophy in the West which has roots in the Classical Period of ancient Greece. The Classical Period was concerned with the empowerment of the community members to improve their literacy levels and the ability to enhance their professionalism (Thompson, 2018). At this time, the emergence of scholars and philosophers like Socrates questioned society's inability to tap into the intellectual realm, which was essential in their lives. Factors such as leadership were tied down to the illiteracy of the Greece society, and the early philosophers worried that if the community was not enlightened on the conventional ways of leadership, it did not have much potential. The philosophers believed that by equipping the members of the society intellectually, they would be able to tap into unreached realms of intellectual capability. The knowledge would be necessary for not only revolutionizing leadership but also other institutions, like entrepreneurship and agriculture (Thompson, 2018). Although the main focus was the philosophical advancement of society to understand nature for what it is. The Western Canon was instrumental in providing a holistic turnaround and development of the Greece philosophy, thus was a revolutionary move. 

Prevailing situations that the learners find themselves in, and their culture, is the source of authority for the progressive perspective of adult learning philosophy. The outlook was influenced by the pressing societal concerns in Europe in the 26th century (Thompson, 2018). Political instability was one of the factors that influenced societal awakening. The society realized they could not rely on the same mentality and school of thought they had used to create societal issues, hence the need to develop a conventional method of problem-solving. 

Appropriate facilitation methods related to the philosophical perspectives 

The methods of evaluation and learning for the liberal perspective include dialect. In dialect, the facilitator engages the students by asking them questions as the lessons progress. The facilitator in this teaching and learning method guides the lesson by giving out notes, as well as offering explanations (Brookfield, 2018). The student is expected to be attentive and ask questions or raise concerns periodically in cases where they do not understand or need clarification. The other method, in this perspective, is the lecture. Like dialect, lectures are essential in engaging the students by giving out notes to the students. Study groups are a necessary aspect of this perspective since it allows the students more room to expound on what they have already with each other (Brookfield, 2018). Through group discussions, learners have the ability as well to conduct further extensive research on a particular topic, ensuring they can make the most of their educational opportunity. 

The progressive perspective adopts the problem-solving scientific method of teaching. In this aspect, various environments of public concerns are simulated in the learning process, and then the facilitator guides the process by educating the learners on some of the practical solutions they can apply to each of these situations (Brookfield, 2018). Activity method as another method of learning is essential in equipping the students with practical knowledge since it actively engages the students in various activities. This method mays be similar to the simulative environment adopted in the first method of learning; only that events are more extensive in the second method. This is because the activity method concentrates in real activities. For instance, the learners may be challenged to go into the community as study groups to apply their acquired knowledge on the prevailing social situations (Brookfield, 2018). With the help of their facilitators, the learners offer an intervention approach to the case, thus obtaining more practical experience in the process. 

QUESTION 2 

Explain the socio-cultural, economic, and political influences that affected the emergence and growth of adult education at various historical intervals 

The term, "adult education", referring to the promotion of adult literacy, was first coined in 1810 in England following the social movement that was characterized by older members of the society expressing their desire to acquire formal education (MacPhail, 2019). Some of the socio-cultural influences for adult education in the United States of America and Canada included the need to enculturate immigrants who had recently moved into the countries. The American and Canadian societies in the 19th century experienced high levels of immigrants who ascribed to different social and cultural ideologies. The immigrants were a source of cultural and social confusion since they presented various cultural ideologies which caused a state of uncertainty in the society. There was the need to not only establish a central system of socio-cultural direction but also to promote and uphold the ideologies of the community they had moved to (MacPhail, 2019). Thus the countries felt the need to align these immigrants to the traditional doctrines and values they practiced. The adult education platform provided an avenue to gather together the immigrants and teach them about the western cultures they were expected to be part of. 

After World War II, the development of government policies was heavily invested in. There was a need to promote more stable systems of governance that would be essential in not only averting future world wars but also in promoting diplomacy and democracy. Thus the funding of adult education began in the 1960s and spread into the 70s in which period adult citizens were taught on governance and diplomacy (MacPhail, 2019). There resulted from the need to enlighten the society on proper leadership that would promote the social wellbeing of its citizens, and the establishment of policies that would ensure economic stability as well. Going back to the drawing board in terms of leadership structures meant the involvement of the larger society in policy formulation. However, the community could not be a substantial aid in the said process if it were not adequately trained and equipped with the knowledge of leadership. Thus the promotion of adult education as a means to prepare the citizens for this role. The growth of adult education in this aspect was promoted to ensure the society was equipped for future changes in policymaking. 

Politically speaking, the rise of the slave rebellion in America, from as early as the 1663 slave revolt in Virginia, was propelled by the need to have black slaves recognized as humans on equal grounds and be subjected to standard human rights. To make their voices heard, the slaves realized that the only shot they had was through gaining a form of formal education so that they would be enlightened as well (MacPhail, 2019). Although this task proved to be challenging, given the various attacks by the white population, the black slaves were bent on gaining formal education. They needed the political enlightenment and advanced technical know-how so that they could be able to push for their political liberation. 

The economic factor for the emergence and growth of adult education was the need to boost productivity. Relying on slave labour, agriculture in the 19th century realized the need to equip the slaves with the necessary technical know-how of going about their operations in the plantations. Although the predominantly white community was wary of the fact that exposure to formal education could be a source of rebellion on the part of the slaves, it was determined to enlighten the laborers in ways that would boost their agricultural productivity (Stadler, 2015). In this aspect, therefore, the white farmers provided guided primary education on agriculture to the slaves, especially to the ones who were put in charge of the other slaves. Basic training was offered on how to handle the essential farm machinery and in diseases and pest control. 

The black slaves, on the other hand, realized that their only shot at getting better jobs, especially for their future generations, would be through acquiring formal education. They, therefore, fought to gain access to formal education, which was spearheaded by other learned black men so that they would have advanced technical know-how and work skills that would enable them to have access to better-paying jobs (Stadler, 2015). Although access to formal education was challenging at this point, the abolition of slavery and slave trade was a welcome relief for the black community since they now had improved and eased access to formal education. The formal training was given at this point to equip the former slaves with the ability and skills to take over agricultural production. Taking over agriculture did not mean displacing their old slave masters, it meant instead the ability to be able to establish agriculture for themselves. 

QUESTION 3 

What do scholars in the field of adult education see as the key barriers to constituting a conventional professional identity? How do they reframe the questions of whether adult education is or is not a professional and whether it should be seeking greater professionalization? 

Some of the critical barriers to identifying adult education as conventional professionalism include the fact that adult teachers were developed, not out of design, but by necessity. The fact that adult teachers were developed out of the need to train adults in matters of formal education for the longest time has served to demoralize the teachers who lack a strong professional identity (Green, 2019). At the advancement of adult education, these teachers, who were referred to as facilitators, were members of the target group who had experience in formal training in the sense that they were learned. Being learned did not mean having a background in the teaching profession. Instead, they were members drawn from other spheres of the educated elite. This marked the beginning of the attitude towards adult educators as mere facilitators. 

Although adult education has evolved over the years and that it now requires a professional background training, the attitude has not shifted. The negative attitude towards adult education has a profession that has led to the demoralizing of the adult teachers who may feel the desire to strengthen the professional identity. This is mainly in places where respect for the standard teachers is high and in societies where education is perceived to be unimportant and restorative. In other words, one barrier to constituting a conventional professional identity is the attitude towards educators. No matter how learned such a facilitator may be, society will still view them as being unlearned and having no professional background. They are perceived to be acting out of necessity rather than design. To correct this perspective, Green (2019), points out that society should be enlightened on the role adult teachers play in promoting formal and standard education among the adult members of the community. To this end, the author observes that only a professional teacher would have such professionalism in handling the acquisition of knowledge on the part of the adult learners. 

Another critical barrier observed is severe working conditions. In defining a difficult working condition, the author points out that the lack of adequate adult school infrastructure hints towards the unprofessionalism of the teaching involved (Green, 2019). One of the factors that determine the level of professionalism in the society is the availability of efficient physical structures in which the particular profession is carried out. Governments and other stakeholders in the education department have failed to invest adequately in the setting up of adult school infrastructures. This further facilitates the notion that adult education lacks the criteria for professionalism (Green, 2019). Like the typical school system, the government must invest in building more structures for adult students, and even allocating finances in the departments dealing with adult education, both at the state and federal levels. 

Hierarchical professionalism in society is another barrier to the identification of adult teaching as a profession. Many people in the economy sector look down on adult teachers, majorly because the other industries are well invested in (Murphy, 2015). For instance, a typical classroom teacher enjoys more benefits than adult teachers. They have high salaries and remunerations and have both state and federal bodies fighting for their rights. On the other hand, adult teachers are subjected to a system that disregards them. They have no proper unions and mechanisms put in place to fight for, and protect their rights. Due to this, other players in higher professions disregard them as being of low education standards. Murphy (2015), observes that salaries and remunerations do not, and should not define a person's professionalism. Instead, they should be determined by their levels of competency and the impact they have on society. To this end, he points out that adult teachers have much impact in promoting social, political, and economic change as any other player in the public sector, hence exuberate high levels of professionalism. 

QUESTION 4 

Discuss the objectives, strengths and limitations of qualitative research. Be sure to consider issues of transferability, conformability, credibility, ethics and practicality. 

Objectives 

Qualitative research aims at gaining a more insightful understanding of a particular event. It is applicable in cases where the researcher wants to narrow down to the statistics of a given phenomenon, rather than to provide a surface description of a broader, thus bogus sample of a population (Roller & Lavrakas, 2015) . By narrowing down to the specifics, the form of research offers a graphic, almost exclusive rendering of the structure in its prevailing order, thus drawing on the broad patterns found among a group under study. Also called field research, qualitative research is more concerned with individual variables within a group, which are independent of each other (Roller & Lavrakas, 2015) . It is a critical tool in understanding human patterns and behaviors in social settings. 

The second objective is to provide a better understanding of a particular phenomenon through first-hand experience. By experiencing first-hand the dominant factors, the report can give a more truthful reporting, facilitated by personal observations as opposed to relying on already collected data (Roller & Lavrakas, 2015) . Previously collected data may be biased since it may report on the given phenomenon as influenced by the reporter's emotions and attitude towards the aspect. 

Strengths of Qualitative Research 

Qualitative research is a more flexible means of data collection in the sense that it can easily adjust to the current setting. This is because while it may have set objectives and variables to study, the target may be switched to accommodate the prevailing conditions in the field (Queirós, Faria, & Almeida, 2017) . This is made possible by the fact that concepts of the study, data collection methods, and data collection tools can be adjusted as the research proceeds, thus ensuring the efficient capturing of all variables. The other strength is the method's ability to offer credible data. The credibility is influenced by the fact the researcher uses the observation method as well as questionnaires. Observation provides an in-depth description of the particular environment (Queirós, Faria, & Almeida, 2017) . This ensures that whatever information which may not have been captured by the surveys, such as the environment composition, is obtained through observation. 

Limitations of Qualitative Research 

Qualitative research is not useful when it comes to the transfer of data. Since the research method focuses more on providing statistics of a particular phenomenon, the data can be transferred into another setting. For instance, data on consumer patterns in Ohio cannot be used to determine the consumer patterns in Los Angeles since the data is fixed on the particular station (Queirós, Faria, & Almeida, 2017) . Other general methods of data collection would give more weight on the general American consumer patterns, which in this case can be easily used to determine the consumer patterns in any one state within America. 

The second limitation is that the method of data collection is time-consuming. It takes a lot of time collecting data on a given phenomenon, given the fact that the researcher would need to spend quality time with the subjects to ensure that most, if not all, of the aspects of the subjects are covered (Queirós, Faria, & Almeida, 2017) . The interpretation of the collected data may be biased. While the report given may be out of an unbiased perspective in the collection of the same, the analysis of this data heavily relies on the researcher who may interpret it based on their view. The interpretation of information is equally as important as the findings of the data. Thus, should the analysis be biased, even though the conclusions may be unbiased, it would lead back to the question of the credibility of the entire report. Lastly, the conformability of the data gathered through qualitative research is questionable (Queirós, Faria, & Almeida, 2017) . This is because the findings cannot be generalized to the study population of the community but instead remains fixed on the particular phenomenon that was narrowed down. 

References  

Arghode, V., Brieger, E. W., & McLean, G. N. (2017). Adult learning theories: implications for online instruction.  European Journal of Training and Development ,  41 (7), 593-609. 

Brookfield, S. (Ed.). (2018).  Training educators of adults: The theory and practice of graduate adult education . Routledge. 

Green, F. (2019). An Exploration into the Value of Formative Assessment and the Barriers Associated with the Implementation of Formative Strategies.  Rethinking Teacher Education for the 21st Century: Trends, Challenges and New Directions , 203. 

Ince, A. (2017). Managing risk in complex adult professional learning: the facilitator’s role.  Professional Development in Education ,  43 (2), 194-211. 

Long, H. B. (2018).  New perspectives on the education of adults in the United States . Routledge. 

MacPhail, S. (2019).  The Historical Formation of Adult Education Discourses in the Shift from Liberalism to Neoliberalism  (Doctoral dissertation, Mount Saint Vincent University). 

Murphy, J. (2015). Creating communities of professionalism: Addressing cultural and structural barriers.  Journal of Educational Administration ,  53 (2), 154-176. 

Queirós, A., Faria, D., & Almeida, F. (2017). Strengths and limitations of qualitative and quantitative research methods.  European Journal of Education Studies . 

Roller, M. R., & Lavrakas, P. J. (2015).  Applied qualitative research design: A total quality framework approach . Guilford Publications. 

Stadler, F. (2015).  The Vienna circle: Studies in the origins, development, and influence of logical empiricism  (Vol. 4). Springer. 

Stubblefield, H. W. (2018).  Towards a history of adult education in America: The search for a unifying principle . Routledge. 

Thompson, J. L. (2018).  Adult education for a change . Routledge.