For elementary level teachers, teaching students how to read is one of the essential things to grapple with complicated academic texts. Reading is a very critical milestone in an elementary school child’s educational journey. Although group activities promote both growth and development needed in different communication skills, independent reading is crucial in determining a child’s academic achievement (Bloom, 1973). Early reading proficiency is among the leading indicators for education. In their K-12 learning experience, children are continuously developing their past knowledge and skills. However, learners with low elementary school grades find it hard to catch up. As a result, it is critical to identify struggling learners early. Improvements in reading occur significantly in the early years. Therefore, there is a high potential for developing reading skills in first elementary school years. By the time a child is in third grade, he/she should know the basics of reading and apply the developed reading skills.
In grade three, students are no longer learn how to read. Teachers make use of written text/books to teach other subjects such as math. Shifting from “learning how to read” to “reading to learn”can be very challenging for students who cannot read proficiently. One in every six learners who cannot read proficiently in third grade fails to graduate from high school within the expected time. This is four times higher than the rate of proficient readers (Donald, 2011). Statistics show that 23% of low and below basic level readers do not complete high school than only 4% of those who can read proficiently (Donald, 2011). It is crucial to address this problem hence the need for the current topic. This study will explain how reinforcement's operant conditioning concept contributes to reading proficiency in elementary school children.
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Background
The operant condition is a learning principle that applies rewards and punishment for conduct/behavior. The principle was first introduced by Edward L. Thorndike and later on developed and popularized by B.F. Skinner. According to the learning principle of operant conditioning, behavior that is ensured by a pleasant consequence is most likely to be repeated. In contrast, action followed by results that are not pleasant is less likely to be done again (Blackman, 2017). Towards the 1920s, John Watson and other behavioral psychologists proposed various types of classical conditioning. However, the most influential was F.B. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory. The views presented by Skinner are considered less extreme than the ones proposed by behaviorists such as Watson. According to Skinner, human beings have a mind, but it is productive to examine observable behavior instead of internal mental activities.
F.B. Skinner believed that classical conditioning was simplistic to be considered an absolute explanation of complicated human conduct. According to Skinner, the best way to study and explain behavior would be to examine its causes and outcomes. He referred to this approach as operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is founded on the concept that learning is a result of variation in overt behavior. A change in an individual’s behavior is a product of a person’s reaction to stimuli in the environment (Skinner, 1948). For example, a response generates an outcome such as reading a word or solving a mathematical problem. In situations where a specific stimulus-response design is reinforced, an individual is conditioned to produce a response.
The distinctive aspect of operant condition compared with other types of behaviorism, such as drive reduction, is that an organism can produce a response instead of only making a response because of external stimuli. Reinforcement is a crucial component of operant conditioning theory. Reinforcement can be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement accelerates a particular behavior’s frequency by giving a reward while negative reinforcement removes negative stimuli to improve the action’s frequency (Blackman, 2017). Positive reinforcement can be verbal praise, a prize, or even a good grade. B.F. Skinner (1948) examined operant conditioning by carrying out experiments using animals. The animals were placed inside a Skinner box. Through these experiments, Skinner identified three kinds of operant that follow an organism’s behavior. The identified operants were neutral, reinforcers, and punishers. Neutral operant does not improve or reduce the likelihood that an individual behavior will reoccur. Reinforcers increase the possibility that action will be repeated while punishers lessen the probability of repeated action.
Skinner demonstrated how positive reinforcement worked through placing hungry rats in the Skinner box. A lever was placed in one side of the box, and as rats moved inside the box, they would accidentally hit the lever (Skinner, 1948). The lever was immediately hit; a food prill would drop into a small vessel placed next to the lever. As a result of the immediate consequence, the rats learned to head towards the lever after numerous times being placed inside the box. The outcome of receiving food pellets whenever they knocked the level ensured they frequently repeated the behavior (Skinner, 1948).
B.F. Skinner exhibited how negative reinforcement was applied by putting rats in the Skinner box and subjecting them to undesired electric flow, making them feel uncomfortable. Once they experienced the shock, the electric current was switched off. As an outcome, the rats would go to the lever after several times being placed inside the box. The result of fleeing the electricity made the rats repeat the behavior frequently. Also, Skinner taught the rats under study to escape electricity by switching on the light before the coming of electric current. Consequently, the rats learned how to hit the lever every time the light was on because they understood that the action would prevent switching on the electric current. In operant conditioning, the behavior is linked to outcome. Therefore, immediacy in the implementation of consequences is a significant factor. Reinforcement should be immediate for an individual to associate the result with a behavior. Thus, the principles of operant conditioning are:
Positive reinforcement results in the re-occurrence of behavior. Intermittent reinforcement is specifically efficient and effective.
Information should be given in small amounts to ensure that a response is reinforced/shaped.
Stimulus generalization generates secondary conditioning.
Operant conditioning can be applied in different situations, including addiction behaviors and classroom instruction and management. Operant conditioning principles are very relevant and essential in shaping skills such as reading. Bloom (1973) suggests that operant conditioning reinforcement strategies can be applied in planning instructional programs that promote reading proficiency. The learning principle can be used to help elementary school students develop the skill of reading. For example, the token economy systems in schools are based on operant conditioning principles. In a token economy, a person earns a token when assigned tasks are completed or when a desired behavior is displayed. This system is a reinforcement stategy. As previously stated, reading is an essential skill that elementary school students should acquire by the time they are through with their third grade. Failure to read proficiently at the elementary school level presents significant problems in a learner’s academic journey. The concept of reinforcement has been proposed to help elementary school learners develop reading skills.
Hypothesis
The study hypothesizes that elementary school learners struggling with reading can improve their reading skills and become proficient by applying operant conditioning strategies in classroom instruction.
Definition of Key terms
Reading proficiency: This entails two essential skills, which are decoding and comprehension skills. Decoding skills help children read texts while comprehension skills help understanding, engagement, and involvement with books.
Operant conditioning: Refers to a learning process that involves reinforcing deliberate behaviors through outcomes (Blackman, 2017).
Reinforcement: This refers to actions that increase the likelihood that a response will happen. Support can bolster or weaken a target behavior.
Extrinsic motivation: It is a concept that results in an action or behavior encouraged by external rewards ( Houghton, 2015). Extrinsic motivation happens outside a learner.
Intrinsic motivation: Intrinsic motivation is a construct that results in behavior or an action influenced by internal rewards. Such inspiration happens within an individual.
Modeling: Modelling is showing how an action or behavior is performed for others to imitate.
Oral reading fluency: The number of correct words read in a minute. It is an accurate reading of a text or passage.
Reading achievement: Reading achievement is the ability of a learner to read a text fluently and accurately while at the same time, comprehend the text.
Literature Review
Theoretical Framework
The social learning theory, developed by Albert Bandura, proposes that learning occurs by observing and imitating others’ behavior. Most behavior is learned observationally through imitating others. Through observation, an individual gets an idea of how a specific behavior/action is performed, and the coded information is used as a behavior/action guide (Bandura, 1977). In his social learning theory, Bandura conducted studies involving children making observations of adults who behaved aggressively towards dolls. After observing the aggressive behavior, children were handed dolls to play with. They modeled the aggressive behavior observed in adults. Besides the live model, Bandura studied verbal instructional patterns where specific explanations presented improved. The theorist also examined symbolic models and identified that characters in movies or even books could cause learning among other media. According to the social learning framework, observation on its own is not adequate to cause optimal learning. Both the mental condition and motivation of an individual affect learning. Although this theoretical framework acknowledges that external reinforcement directs education, it proposes that knowledge is not always an external reinforcement outcome (Bandura, 1977). Intrinsic support also plays a role in learning.
Social learning theory explains behavior based on a constant reciprocal association between behavioral, cognitive, and environmental components. Learning based on observation comprises three main components: attention and observer characteristics, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Attention includes affective valence and prevalence, while observer characteristics comprise sensory capacity and previous reinforcement. Retention includes symbolic rehearsal and coding, while motor reproduction includes feedback accuracy. In contrast, motivation has factors such as vicarious reinforcement. According to Bandura (Bandura, 1977), learning occurs by observing rewards and punishment through what Bandura called vicarious reinforcement. In vicarious reinforcement, an individual models another’s the behavior when he/she sees the individual receiving a positive reward for the behavior/action (Holt, 2009).
As BF Skinner suggested, the reinforcement theory states that a person’s behavior results from its consequences (Blackman, 2017). Therefore, when accompanied by positive results, a person’s behavior is likely to be repeated frequently, while adverse effects ensure that it is not repeated. The reinforcement theory of motivation does not acknowledge the role played by the internal conditions of an individual. Therefore, reinforcement theory focuses on extrinsic motivation/reinforcement, while the social learning theory focuses on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Social learning theory explains how reading skills can be developed in elementary school kids with reading challenges through modeling and vicarious reinforcement. The reinforcement theory of motivation provides a theoretical ground/explanation for reading skills development through rewards and recognition. Skinner (1951) suggested that reinforcement outcomes should be continued even after a behavior has been developed. Reinforcement is needed to maintain the strength of response. Therefore, when applied to reading, a reader should continuously have a positive interaction with books/texts to stay engaged with the text. Both theories can be used to guide the development of reinforcement strategies that promote reading proficiency in elementary school kids.
Applied Literature
The prevalent form of the behavioral viewpoint of motivation is Skinner’s operant conditioning principle. From an operant conditioning perspective, the possibility of generating a response is considered a motivation, while the reinforcement is perceived as the motivator. Eckert et al. (2002) conducted a study to assess contingent reinforcement’s effectiveness with antecedent intervention on elementary learners’ reading fluency. The study applied an observational approach. The research confirmed that reinforcement strategies are effective in improving reading proficiency. The research design and methods used were appropriate for the study. The study’s findings support the current study’s hypothesis.
La Marca & O’Connor (2016) conducted a study to investigate the application of EEG operant conditioning (neurofeedback) as an intervention to enhance reading achievement. Neurofeedback intervention is based on operant conditioning principles. The study was conducted in a public school context where five elementary school participants were included. According to the researchers, the study sample was ethnically diverse and comprised of four boys and one girl. Multiple baseline design was applied on single cases to evaluate study participants who received 40 sessions of neurofeedback. Improvements were observed in measures of attention and reading proficiency. The study’s findings propose that EEG operant conditioning improved participants’ engagement with the text. La Marca & O’Connor (2016) suggest that EEG operant conditioning is a viable intervention for enhancing reading achievement and attention among learners with attention deficits. However, the study was conducted on a minimal sample size, which is a significant limitation that might impact the study’s findings' generalizability.
In another study, Guay et al. (2010) conducted quantitative research to assess reading motivation among grades 1-3 learners. The researchers recruited 425 participants in the study. The findings of this study indicated that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have an impact on reading achievement. However, although extrinsic motivation affected, intrinsic motivation had the strongest influence on reading proficiency. This study's findings underscored the need to develop autonomous inspiration instead of controlled motivation in elementary school learners. Although the study had significant strengths, such as large sample size, it had substantial methodological limitations that might have impacted its findings. Some of the criterion measures used were not very objective. More objective measures, such as reading achievement, would have been appropriate. Besides, individual interviews would have been more suitable for the study instead of the classroom administration process.
Becker et al. (2010) analyzed the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation concerning reading literacy, and the reading is done. The researchers recruited 740 students from grades three to six. The study’s longitudinal method showed that both reading proficiency and reading amount were linked to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation, which is associated with operant conditioning, was based on three factors. A four-item Likert was used to respond. However, contrary to multiple studies that indicate a positive relationship between extrinsic motivation and reading achievement, this study suggests that learners who read for extraneous purposes such as the need to get rewarded because they have seen others receive rewards or please their parents have low levels of reading proficiency. The bidirectional link established by Becker et al. (2010) could propose that reading failure in elementary school is associated with more extrinsic motivation and learners reading only when instructed to do so. Becker et al. (2010) suggested that extrinsic motivation's execution might adversely impact learners' motivation, causing low reading achievement levels.
In their study, Houghton (2015) examined the effect of intrinsic, extrinsic, and a combination of the two factors on reading achievement as well as fluency in grade one learners. Social cognitive and operant theories concepts were applied in the study. Sixty-six students were recruited for the study. A quasi-experimental method was used, and participants were allocated three different intervention groups. Each group represented a different type of motivation. Pretest and posttest data were gathered for analysis. Some groups were given rewards as proposed by extrinsic motivation and others received an intervention that emphasized goal setting, representing intrinsic motivation. The interventions were administered for eight weeks, after which a comparison was made between the pretest and posttest scores. The study's findings indicated no significant variations in reading achievement between the three types of motivation. However, a significant difference was observed in oral reading fluency between the three types of stimulation. The group that received intrinsic motivation had better scores in reading fluency. The findings provided by Houghton (2015) indicate that intrinsic motivation can improve reading proficiency more than extrinsic motivation.
A similar study was done by Law (2008). The researchers investigated the relationship between learners’ extrinsic motivation, instructional methods, home literacy, and reading proficiency. Seven hundred thirty-four participants from grade two participated in this study. Participants were recruited from seven primary schools. The mean age for the study sample was 7.5 years. Two reading comprehension tests were administered to all participants. Also, a questionnaire that assessed extrinsic motivation and learners’ views on instructional methods was administered. Also, parents to the participating learners completed questionnaires on home literacy practices, parental support in students' homework, and their viewpoints on their children's instructional practices. Data were analyzed using multiple regression, and the findings show a relationship between home literacy practices, both learners’ and parents’ views on instructional methods, and the participants’ reading proficiency. Parental support in homework and extrinsic motivation did not correspond with reading proficiency.
However, a different study conducted by Gentilini & Greer (2020) indicates a positive relationship between conditioned reinforcement and reading achievement. According to Gentilini & Greer (2020), reading interest is essential in reading achievement. Thirty-four grade-two students participated in this study. They were assessed based on intrinsic motivation to read and the reading text's reinforcement value (Gentilini & Greer, 2020). Significant correlations between reading achievement, vocabulary, and maintained attention were revealed. A pre and post-intervention method was used to examine conditioned reinforcement's impact through a shared reading plan between teachers and participants on reading achievement. The intervention involved joint reading activities in improving learners' reinforcement value of reading (Gentilini & Greer, 2020). Seven participants had their grades improve from 0.1 to 2.2 on different reading measures in less than 315 minutes. These findings suggest that intrinsic motivation (love for reading) is vital for learners to get meaning from texts, comprehend, and improve vocabulary. However, although the methods applied were appropriate for this study, the sample size cannot be considered representative hence presents generalizability issues.
Discussion
Summary
Failure to read proficiently in elementary school harms future academic achievement. The current study examines the application of operant conditioning concepts on reading proficiency among elementary school learners. Existing literature provides diverse perspectives on operant conditioning reinforcement strategies in reading ability. Although most literature acknowledges that operant conditioning reinforcement strategies can motivate learners to read, it is proposed that intrinsic motivation is more important. Operant conditioning encourages action or behavior using external means. The concepts do not correlate with intrinsic motivation, which, according to evidence, is essential in reading proficiency. However, operant conditioning strategies can, to some extent, improve reading proficiency in elementary students, as revealed in some studies. However, there is no evidence that operant conditioning can improve reading proficiency in the long-term when rewards are no longer given.
Recommendations
This study recommends some inclusion of operant conditioning strategies in reading practices. However, these strategies should be combined with intrinsic motivation strategies to ensure that students develop an interest in reading, even when rewards are no longer provided. Teachers should include operant conditioning strategies combined with inherent motivation techniques to enhance reading proficiency in elementary school students. Extrinsic motivation can be an essential tool to learn new skills such as reading when used in moderation. When used too much, a reward's value can reduce, leading to loss of impact. These recommendations are relevant to educational institutions because they are involved in developing the education curriculum. Most studies assess reinforcement outcomes in the short-term. Research that follow-up the impact of reinforcement strategies for more than one year is needed.
Conclusion
This topic is crucial because it contributes to existing evidence on the need to incorporate operant conditioning strategies in classroom reading instruction. Findings partially support the current study’s hypothesis because evidence suggests that although operant conditioning strategies (extrinsic motivation) can contribute to reading proficiency to some extent, intrinsic motivation strategies are more effective. Therefore, operant conditioning learning principles contribute to reading proficiency through extrinsic motivation.
Assessment
The writing process involved all the significant steps in research paper writing. Powerpoint presentation included essential points of the research assignment. The sources used were reviewed based on methodology, relevance, and appropriateness of study design. The literature review step was exceptionally helpful. By reviewing existing literature, the student was able to identify what has been done on the topic and the existing gaps that need to be addressed. Although the articles' critical review to establish their credibility, validity, appropriateness, and currency were somehow challenging; it helped identify the best evidence on the topic. Therefore, the article reviews were beneficial. The student has learned that learning theories apply to issues such as addictive behaviors and academics as well. This assignment will contribute towards the student’s goal of transforming the elementary education curriculum for better and holistic learning.
References
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Guay, F., Chanal, J., Ratelle, C. F., Marsh, H. W., Sarose, S., & Boivin, M. (2010). Intrinsic identified and controlled types of motivation for school subjects in young elementary school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology , 80 (4), 711-735. https://doi:10.1348/00070910X499084
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