It is obvious that one would wonder why, despite students performing well in their secondary school, some of them end up not performing well in their post- secondary education. Counseling and preparing students before they enroll in college is one of the most important steps to ensure that they excel in their academics and attain their degrees upon completing school. Failure to prepare the learners before taking on their first course undermines their performance in their studies. According to researchers from the National Center for Education Statistics, most students do not perform well in college due to lack of preparedness for the university academic work (Saxon & Morante, 2014). As part of the preparation, teachers have a significant role to play in counseling students through assessment and testing. The main goal of assessment and testing in counseling is to meet the educational needs of the learners by evaluating, measuring and documenting their skill acquisition, learning progress as well as readiness to take up academic work. In a nutshell, assessments and tests are designed to measure whether or not learners comprehend the concepts that the teachers have planned to teach. They are also used to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the learners so that teachers can make an informed decision in providing counseling and academic support. The following paper will discuss the use and importance of assessment and testing in higher education. Information presented here will be useful for teachers seeking to enhance their knowledge and skills in counseling assessment.
Concept of assessment and testing
According to Watson and Flamez (2014), counseling is one of the most important services that students need while on campus. Most higher learning institutions have designed counseling programs with the aim of helping students to make informed career choices. Counseling programs are also important as they help learners who are experiencing such problems as lack of sleep, mood swings, low self-esteem and concentration problems among others. Counseling involves helping students to develop career portfolios, preparing them for tests and sponsoring workshops that are designed to enhance job skills as well as personal development (Watson & Flamez, 2014). For successful counseling, teachers or school counselors ought to have a clear picture of how to design the counseling programs based on information collected through assessment of the learners. Assessment, in this case, refers to the collection of information with the aim of identifying, analyzing, and addressing the problems of the clients. In a school setting, school counselors use assessment to identify students’ problems and plan interventions with the aim of helping them to make positive progress in the environment of counseling (Watson & Flamez, 2014). While assessment involves gathering information, testing in counseling involves measuring psychological constructs using specified procedures.
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Historical perspectives concerning assessment and testing in counseling
Assessment and testing in counseling are not new phenomena as they have existed for many centuries now. For instance, there is evidence showing that the Greeks used testing about 2500 years ago. The Chinese emperor also issued public officials in the country to test their handwriting, poetry composition and equestrian abilities among others (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2002). Modern testing started during the 19th century under the influence of biologists Francis Galton and Charles Darwin. While Darwin influenced the use of animals in studying human behavior, Galton focused more on studying human heredity with interest in measuring individual intelligence via sensory discrimination tests. Throughout his work, Galton believed that it was possible to measure anything including emotions and interests. This belief has influenced modern assessment practices as most counselors are not attempting to measure such psychological constructs as intelligence and stress. Galton further influenced early assessment by devising standardized methods of collecting information that would be useful in the assessment. Wilhelm Wundt, a psychologist, also influenced early assessment as he focused more on identifying intelligence factors common to all humans. Wundt’s student, James McKeen Cattell, expanded the testing done by Galton and Wundt and included memory and other mental processes. However, his mental tests did not have any relation to estimates of students’ academic achievement.
Influenced by Edouard Seguin and J. E. D Esquirol, Alfred Binet later introduced the intelligence test in the year 1905. His intelligence test specifically focused on identifying children with mental retardation as he believed that they were less likely to benefit from the ordinary schooling. Following the World War I, United States military leaders wanted to carry out a group testing to identify people who were not intellectually fit to join or continue working in the military forces (Whiston, 2009). Frank Parsons, another individual who was influential in the 1900s, introduced the first approaches that were to be used in career counseling. In his model, the career counselor was supposed to begin by understanding the person, understanding the world of work and then matching the individual to the occupation of the world. Interests in understanding the construct of intelligence were followed by a debate about whether or not intelligence pertained to general tasks. While some psychologists argued that intelligence pertained to general tasks, others argued that pertained to specific tasks. This is a debate that still continues even today. Later, David Wechsler introduced the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale as a way of advancing the intelligence testing (Whiston, 2009).
During this time, private organizations began to appreciate the importance of testing in not only selecting but also classifying the workers (Whiston, 2009). What followed was the development of special aptitude tests that were to be used in the mechanical areas. Assessment of students’ performance on different subjects began in the year 1923 following the introduction of Stanford Achievement Test. The main purpose of this test was to measure the performance of the students in different subjects rather than testing a single subject. Through this test, educators could compare the performance of their students to that of other learners from different schools. The achievements made in the 1920s prompted the need to establish a resource that would be useful in not only identifying but also evaluating testing instruments. To fulfill this need, Mental Measurements Yearbook was established as the first edition in the year 1939. The yearbooks were used as sources of information about the instruments (Whiston, 2009).
The examination of testing and assessment began in the 1960s as educators raised concerns about the use of testing in higher education settings. Researchers developed measures that could be useful in measuring psychological constructs like depression. Today, most counselors are using assessment instruments to measure constructs like wellness, substance abuse, anxiety, and suicide among others (Whiston, 2009).This period was also marked by the establishment of the Association for Assessment in Counseling by the American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) in the year 1965. In line with the framework provided for by the APGA, the association would improve standards for the professional service of measuring and evaluating. It would also promote technical competency in interpreting the measurements devices. Refinement in testing and assessment in counseling and education is ongoing, and the standards for the construction of test continue to evolve.
Methods of effectively preparing for and conducting initial assessment meetings
Most higher learning institutions conduct an initial assessment of the students during the first six two months of every academic year. The main purpose of carrying out an initial assessment of the students is to assess their current skills to provide information on how to measure their progress. Initial assessments are not only designed to measure the current skills of the students but also assess barriers to learning, adaptive behaviors, communication and occupational therapy needs. Initial assessments are also meant to inform the students of what they need to do to make positive progress in their studies, provide motivation, and gather information for the students and parents.
How educators prepare and conduct an initial assessment of the students determine whether or not the assessment will be beneficial. The methods for preparing for an initial assessment are done in steps. The first step in the preparation is to identify the objectives of the assessment meeting or program. For credibility, an assessment meeting should be prepared with the aim of assessing the key attributes of improved academic performance. Such attributes reading, communication, critical thinking and problem-solving skills among others. After identifying the objectives, teachers should determine the minimal knowledge that students should have when they graduate. They should approach this by using discipline-specific attributes like ethical standards, the ability to use computers, knowledge of management practices and ability to comprehend instructional materials among others. Next, educators should develop methods that would be used to determine whether or not the students have achieved learning objectives. For example, they can use external evaluators, portfolios and comprehensive examinations.
Teachers can begin conducting the initial assessment when the students enroll in their first semester in college. The main aim of carrying out an assessment at this stage is to ‘know’ them and establish their experience, motivation, and interests. Some of the methods used when conducting initial assessments include tutor observations, group-discussion, questionnaires, practical activities and self-assessment exercises. For instance, when assessing communication skills, educators can use observation to determine the students’ use of language, attention, listening and understanding of language. Regardless of the methods used, teachers should always ensure that the initial assessment contains an assessment of skills they can easily validate. After conducting the assessment, it is important to record it using such methods as the Individual Learning Plan (ILP). This method is beneficial in the sense that it helps the students to reflect on their achievements.
Assessing risk of aggression or danger to others
Assessing the risk of aggression to others is very important in preventing deaths. There are various a number of score systems used to predicting suicidal intentions. However, none of them has a good predicting ability but the NICE has given effective guidelines to perform assessment to such individuals (Videbeck, 2011). The first guideline is that the physician should create rapport and develop a trusting relationship by giving the patient with the space they need and by asking open questions that the patient are comfortable with. The second guideline is assessing the risk factors for example by assessing the psychiatric condition of the patient. This can be done through assessing the history of the individual, the medication and observing the verbal and non-verbal signals such as mood, eye contact and hallucinations. The third guideline is to assess current intentions and plans because most individuals that have experienced abuse and traumas wish they were dead and try to commit suicide. Lastly, the physician should asses the needs of the individuals by discussing with them their social problems, strengths and weaknesses (Videbeck, 2011).
Identifying trauma and abuse and for reporting abuse
The National Institute for Health and Care (NICE) has provided a few concepts of identifying trauma and abuse and reporting abuse in college students. The first method of identifying trauma and abuse is the evidence of alerting features. Alerting features are signs and symptoms of injury or the change of behavior which can indicate abuse (Mahadevan & Garmel, 2012). The second method of identification of abuse in college students is to consider the abuse which can be a possible justification of any alerting feature of abuse. The third process is “suspect” which is a level whereby concern arises. This may trigger an investigation for the protection of the student and offer the victim’s family much support. In this stage, it is good to approach the student in a supportive manner by creating an atmosphere of acceptance, trust, and respect. Also, it is thoughtful to comply with the student’s space for example not sitting too far nor too near him or her (Mahadevan & Garmel, 2012). The last process of identifying abuse in a college student is the implementation of maltreatment in the presence any explanation found. When reporting abuse of a student, it is important to have the necessary details of the student such as address, name, and age. It is also important to give the indicators of any harm made and the reason why you believe the behavior of the student is the reason for the abuse. In reporting it is essential to describe the type of injury occurred or the behavior observed and the location in which the student can be found. It is very important to give more information on the cultural details and any disabilities of the student (Mahadevan & Garmel, 2012).
Use of assessments for diagnostic and intervention planning purposes
Assessing the diagnostic and intervention plans is important because they help understand the student. This will contribute to getting important information which will help design and provide them with the appropriate therapy. It is important to take in to account every individual's level such as strengths and weaknesses (Altmaier & Hansen, 2012). Assessments are also important because they help clarify the initial diagnosis performed. Although it is a very difficult process and time consuming, early screening and attending of referral programs is important to ensure guardians’ concerns for their children are taken into consideration. Assessments are also useful in documenting the status of diagnosis necessary for access ton funding (Altmaier & Hansen, 2012). A diagnostic reassessment is required later in the student’s life for the purpose of documenting a specific diagnosis. This helps determine the school placement and funding support for the student. Assessment is also important because it help get information on the program evaluation. This helps document the progress of the student through comparing the diagnostic results over time which help select the best treatment option for the student. When the student is combined with other individuals in a class, this information helps for evaluation purposes. It will assist in determining whether the treatment interventions are effective (Altmaier & Hansen, 2012).
Basic concepts of types of testing and assessments
Standardized and non-standardized testing
Standardized tests are assessment tests whereby students of a certain class are required to answer similar questions in a similar manner (Leslie & Robert, 2015). Presently, standardized tests are the most commonly used assessment tests in most colleges as they help in comparing the performance of individual students. The two types that are most common include achievement and aptitude tests. While standardized achievement tests are useful in evaluating the effectiveness of the school, aptitude tests are useful in predicting how students may or may not perform in the successive education setting (Leslie & Robert, 2015).
Non-standardized tests are similar to the standardized tests in the sense that they measure the individual performances of the students (Leslie & Robert, 2015).The only difference between the two is that non-standardized tests are not used for comparing the abilities of the students. Examples of non-standardized tests include college entrance examination tests such as ACT and SAT. Most higher learning institutions prefer the standardized tests to the non-standardized tests because they are more practical, report reports concerning the progress of the students and that standardized results are more quantifiable (Leslie & Robert, 2015).
Norm-referenced and criterion-referenced assessments
A norm-referenced test is a type of a standardized assessment test that is used to compare the test takers (students) and rank them according to their scores or performance (Popham, 1975).This way, teachers are in a better position to identify students who perform poorly and those who perform well. The main goal of giving norm-referenced test is to provide information for making decisions relating to success in academics. A good example of a norm-referenced test is the SAT (Popham, 1975).
Unlike norm-referenced tests, criterion-referenced tests are mainly used to measure whether or not students have mastered certain skills or have met certain standards outlined by their teachers. The results of these tests are useful in making decisions regarding what teachers can do to improve the students’ mastery of skills and knowledge (Popham, 1975). Criterion-referenced tests are also used by college executives to determine whether or not a teacher will be employed at the institution.
Group and individual assessments
Individual assessment is whereby a teacher measures the learning capabilities of a student one at a time. Although this type of assessment is time-consuming, it is effective as it focused on identifying the weaknesses and challenges that are specific to certain students and not others. Take, for instance, a situation whereby one student has problems in reading as compared to other students. In this case, the teacher can plan exclusive lessons to improve the reading skills of the student. The instructor can also administer an individual assessment on this specific student to determine whether he or she is making progress in reading skills. The rationale for using individual assessment lies on the premise that students have different learning capabilities despite being at the same academic level.
Group assessment is where the teacher assesses the capabilities of many students at the same time. Just like in individual assessment, group assessment focuses on determining whether or not students understand topic concepts and instructional materials. The number one benefit of assessing students as a group is that it saves time. For credibility, teachers should conduct group assessments on students who are already grouped according to their learning capabilities and mastery of knowledge and skills.
Statistical concepts
Scales of measurements are used in the educations setting to categorize and quantify different variables. One important thing to note is that the measurement scales used depend do not depend on the features of the variables measured but rather depends on the measurements methods used. It is important for educators to understand the concept of measurements scales to improve their skills in presenting, interpreting as well as analyzing data. Data, in this case, my include students’ performance over a semester or academic year.
There are four measurement scales: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. Nominal scale is used to categorize each unit or variable to where it belongs. For instance, teachers can categorize the gender composition of the entire school into male and female. An ordinal scale is mostly used when showing the characteristics of the units or variables being measured. Educators, for example, can use the ordinal scale to categorize students according to their performance in academics. The interval scale of measurement includes such properties as equal intervals, identity, and magnitude. An interval scale shows the order and difference between the values being measured. A good example of an interval scale is the central tendency which is measured by standard deviation, median, mode, and mead. Ratio measurement scale is an advancement of the interval scale of measurement as it has the property of minimum zero value. Ratio scales are important as they allow statistical analysis through not only descriptive but also inferential statistics.
Reliability and validity in the use of assessments
Reliability and validity in assessments are two important properties in telling whether a test is quality and useful. Reliability can be defined as how a test can consistently measure a characteristic (Rath, 2001). A performance in a test can be interrupted by the individual’s mental state when he or she is having tests. Environmental factors such as temperature, lighting or noise can easily affect the individual performance in a test. Many tests have more than one form of assessments which are known as parallel forms which are intended to have the same characteristics of measurement but have different items. Reliability of tests is indicated when test scores are not affected by measurement errors. Validity of assessment is the most significant issue in selecting a test (Rath, 2001). Validity indicates if a characteristic being restrained is associated to the job requirements and gives meaning to the test scores. It also shows the degree to which one can make conclusions about individuals established on their scores.
Using assessments in academic, personal and social development
Educators focus on improving not only the academic achievement of the students but also enhance their personal and social development. Academic, personal and social development is important for college students as it helps them to gain confidence, understand themselves and work well with other people in the society. Educators use assessments to enhance the academic achievement of the students by measuring their understanding of course topics and other concepts relating to their major. This way, they can make decisions on the strategies to use to improve the academic performance of the students. On personal development, educators use assessments to make an informed decision on how to improve the students’ leadership, collaboration, communication and problem-solving skills. Assessments also provide information on how teachers can enhance the social skills, emotional skills and classroom behavior of the students.
Use of environmental assessments and systematic behavioral observations
Environmental assessments and systematic behavioral observations help observe a person in your care and can help you understand the strengths and weaknesses of the individual (Pomerantz, 2008). The observations you make can help you make changes the environment in which you care for the individual and enable learning. Behavioral observations contribute to tracking the progress of the individual. It allows one to observe where a person is struggling and lying behind in areas of development and take the necessary action to make improvements. This will also allow better assessment with more accurate results on the child’s progression in development.
Using symptom checklists, and personality and psychological testing
In the educational setting, psychological testing is an assessment that involves collecting, integrating as well as interpreting information about the students. Teachers can obtain information about the individual characteristics of the students through one-on-one interviews, behavioral observations, formal psychological testing and referring to the educational records of individual students. Formal psychological testing, in this case, involves the use of standardized tests, questionnaires and interviews that are unique to the circumstances of the student being assessed. College counselors use not only standardized assessment tests but also symptoms checklists to identify and differentiate some of the problems experienced by the students. Such problems may include depression, anger, misbehavior and problems relating to concentration in the classroom. Effective psychological evaluations are important as they help establish appropriate treatment or diagnosis required.
Using assessment results to diagnose developmental, behavioral, and mental disorders
Using assessment results to diagnose developmental, behavioral and mental disorders is very important because it has an impact on the treatment and medical decisions. Failure to adequately assess patients with mental health problems can lead devastating outcome. Assessment tests are important since they are used in the examination of an individual’s behavior and appearance to other people. It also helps to examine the posture and movement of the patients trying to identify any abnormality that can suggest any disorders in the central nervous system. Assessments are also used to describe the moods and feelings of the patients towards different things and occasions. Assessment helps in determining the perceptions of the patient. Some patients experience unusual perceptions such as hallucinations and illusions. In general, assessment helps in determining the cognitive status of patients and gives physicians to make a judgment of the right medication the patient needs to undertake to maintain and treat his or her condition.
Ethical strategies for selecting, administering and interpreting assessment and test results
Some of the strategies used in selecting, administering and interpreting assessment and test results are identifying the exact information needed such as identification and diagnosis. It is also important to have the know-how of the methods to be used to collect data which can be either formal or informal. When administering assessments and tests, it is important to establish a parrot that will be used to influence testing. It is also essential to materials to perform the tests and the environment. In interpreting assessment, it is important to have a positive impact on the individual since this will help in making plans for diagnosis and treatment. There are many evaluation methods, but the commonly used is the unstructured clinical interview whereby the counselor and the patient interact in the aim of gathering information about the understanding and feelings towards his or her mental problem.
References
Altmaier, E. M., & Hansen, J.-I. C. (2012). The Oxford handbook of counseling psychology . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Leslie A. Miller & Robert L. Lovler. (2015). Foundations of Psychological Testing: A Practical Approach (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.
Mahadevan, S. V., & Garmel, G. M. (2012 ). An introduction to clinical emergency medicine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pomerantz, A. M. (2008). Clinical psychology: Science, practice, and culture . Los Angeles: Sage Publications.
Popham, J. W. (1975). Educational evaluation . Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
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Saxon, D. P., & Morante, E. A. (2014). Effective student assessment and placement: Challenges and recommendations. Journal of Developmental Education, 37 (3), 24.
Videbeck, S. L. (2011). Psychiatric-mental health nursing . Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Watson, J. C., & Flamez, B. (2014). Counseling assessment and evaluation: Fundamentals of applied practice .
Whiston, S. C. (2009). Principles and applications of assessment in counseling . Australia: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
