Assistive technology (AT) is the general term referring to assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities (PWD’s), including the process for their in - selection , siting, and utilization. Assistive technology may also be defined as “ any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities ” (Cook & Polgar, 2014; Section508.gov, n.d). Making a distinction between ATs and adaptive technologies is important. Though used interchangeably, adaptive technology is defined as “ any object or system that is specifically designed for the purpose of increasing or maintaining the capabilities of people with disabilities. ” It encompasses items specifically designed for individuals with disabilities that would rarely be used by non-disabled persons. Likewise, i t is a subset of AT and in many cases is electronic or IT - related in nature. Assistive technologies come in different varieties ranging from rudimentary to incredibly complex forms and vary in design, materials and systems integration. The nature or design of AT depends on the type and severity of the disability of the intended user, the challenges they are meant to address as well as the end user’s environment. Examples of assistive technology are mobility enhancement aids, such as wheelchairs, scooters, walkers, canes, crutches, prosthetic devices, and orthotic devices, hearing aids for persons with hearing problems, computer software and hardware for facilitating integration of persons with disability into information technology, such as voice recognition programs, screen readers, and screen enlargement applications (Cook & Polgar, 2014).
Persons with cognitive challenges can also benefit from computer or electrical assistive devices while their participation in learning and classroom activities can be enhanced by tools such as automatic page-turners, book holders, and adapted pencil grips . Assistive technology is meant to confer a greater degree of independence to persons with disability by enabling them to accomplish tasks they previously could not or accomplished with great strain . This is by providing enhancements to the technology or improving the user interaction with the technology. An example is a word prediction algorithm provided by SwiftKey and integrated into the Assistive Contextually Aware Toolkit ACAT, a speech assistance program made by Intel for Professor Stephen Hawkins. The algorithm, which is trained on his books and lectures, increased his speed of speech from one word per minute to te n words per minute . This has enabled him to increase the speed needed to accomplish such tasks (Medeiros, 2015 ; Cook & Polgar, 2014 ) . Assistive technologies are of a wide variety and have come a long way . T his paper aims to discuss how special -purpose computers are making a difference in adaptive technology.
Delegate your assignment to our experts and they will do the rest.
History of assistive technology
The Vocational Rehabilitation Act was first enacted in 1918, providing funding for state-administered vocational rehabilitation programs. Subsequent amendments expanded services offered to include individuals with mental and emotional disabilities and to include medical and living concerns in addition to the employment of persons with disabilities. In 1988, the “ Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act” (Tech Act) was the first law to specifically address assistive technology with funding coming from the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR). In the Tech Act, a daptive t echnology is defined as including both assistive devices and the services needed to make meaningful use of such devices (Alper & Raharinirina, 2006; Bryant & Seay, 1998; Brown, 1992). P rovisions of these acts have been widely adopted and are now found in other statutes, including the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), both passed initially in 1990 and reauthorized in subsequent years.
Special purpose computers in Assistive Technology
The role of computers in AT has been increasing with innovations in information technology. For instance, in 1965 , Gordon Moore a co-founder of chip maker Intel predicted that computing would dramatically increase in power, and decrease in relative cost, every 18 months. This was based on an observation he made that the number of transistors per square inch on integrated circuits had doubled every year since their invention. With this increase in computing power, computers have become more portable and easier to integrate into everyday life. This has enabled their utilization in assisting persons with disability to achieve higher levels of productivity and independence. An example is the computing suite currently used by Professor Stephen Hawkins.
Professor Stephen Hawking world renowned as a theoretical physicist and for his ground-breaking work in general relativity and black holes. Hawking suffers from a rare early-onset slow-progressing form of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS ). This condition is also known as motor neuron disease or Lou Gehrig's disease and has gradually paralyzed him over the decades. Hawking was diagnos ed with motor neuron disease when at the age of 21 and doctors gave him a life expectancy of two years. However, he went on to become a member of the Institute of Astronomy in Cambridge in 1968. Hawking's ever-expanding career was accompanied by his ever-worsening physical state; he became wheelchair bound in 1969. By the mid-1970s, the Hawking family had taken in one of Hawking's graduate students to help manage his care and work. In 1985 he lost his voice for good following a tracheotomy following a bout of pneumonia after a visit to the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) (Medeiros, 2015). This put his research and lecturing work in jeopardy, to continue with his life’s work he was fitted with an array of devices, beginning his relationship with adaptive technology and bringing to th e fore the role that special computers can play in Assistive Technology.
Professor Stephen Hawking made use of speech cards for a long time. However, in 1988 he was fitted with a new communication device that u s ed the Equalize r software from a California-based company called Words Plus . The device ran on an Apple II and was linked to a Call Text 5010 speech synthesizer. Linked to a click which he manipulated with his thumbs, this new system enabled Professor Hawking to communicate at a rate of 15 words per minute. However, by 2008, Hawking’s hand was too weak to use the clicker. He was then fitted with a cheek switch which used a low infrared beam to detect instances of Professor Hawking’s tensed cheek muscle. His rate of communication however deteriorated to one word a minute with regressive muscle dystrophy, leading to a rework of his computer aids and associated software. His current configuration consists of a Lenovo Yoga 260 provided by Lenovo and Intel, ACAT interface software provided by Intel and three speech synthesizers including the Call Text 5010 wich retains his original voice. Professor Stephen Hawking’s ability to communicate is built on special computers such as speech synthesizers and optical trackers. The first computer-based speech synthesis systems originated in the late 1950s. Noriko Umeda developed the first general English text-to-speech system in 1968 at the Electrotechnical Laboratory, Japan.
The Call Text 5010 Professor Hawking used is an example of adaptive technology as only persons with disabilit ies use such equipment. Speech synthesizers take the text as input and produce an audio stream as output. Speech synthesis is also referred to as text-to-speech (TTS). A synthesizer must perform substantial analysis and processing to accurately convert a string of characters into an audio stream that sounds just as the words would be spoken . The front end of the system specializes in the analysis of text using natural language rules. It analyzes a string of characters to determine where the words are. The back end takes the analysis done by the front end and, through some non-trivial analysis of its own and generates the appropriate sounds for the input text . The Call Text 5010 contains a processor that turns text into speech, a device that was also used for automated telephone answering systems in the 80s. However, most speech synthes es nowadays are software based and are integrated into operating systems such as the Windows operating system. However, there are specialised software solutions from firms such as Kurzweil . The se include the modern i n tera c tion of hardware based / specialized systems such as talking calculators that assist students with math problems. These are useful for students suffering from Dyscalculia a failure to achieve in mathematics commensurate with chronological age, normal intelligence, and adequate instruction. This condition is marked by challenges visualization ; visual-spatial perception, processing and discrimination; counting; pattern recognition; sequential memory; working memory for numbers; retrieval of learned facts and procedures; directional confusion; quantitative processing speed; kinesthetic sequences; and perception of time. Such calculators have a built-in speech synthesizer that reads aloud each number, symbol, or operation key that a user presses ; it also vocalizes the answer to the problem. This auditory feedback may help a student check the accuracy of their keys presses and verify the answer. For mobility enhancement, some persons with disabilit ies may also rely on GPS the Global Positioning System. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up of at least 24 satellites. The Global Positioning System works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day, with no subscription fees or setup charges. The U.S. Department of Defense initially put the satellites into orbit for military use but made them available for civilian use in the 1980s. Modern GPS receivers are extremely accurate due to their parallel multi-channel design.
In conclusion, s pecialized computing systems for assisting persons with disability a re necessitated by the specialized needs that some PWD’s may have. However, this is subject to change with the increase in versatility of computer systems such as the tablet now used by Professor Hawking. The presence of the Call Text 5010 is as due to his unwillingness to shift to new systems as the older device was programmed with his voice. Newer systems tend to be linked with the ability to integrate them with sensory input from another sense, mainly sight. There will always be a need for specialized systems such as talking calculators as these allow for visually impaired users without the benefit of the versatility of sight . Specialized needs such as geo-location will also drive the development of specialized systems such as GPS. Software systems may compare in many ways such as in the use of GSM network based assisted GPS (A-GPS), but the use of specialized computers as assistive technology will endure as these in many way s allow for low-cost solution tailored to their user’s needs.
References
Alper, S., & Raharinirina, S. (2006). Assistive technology for individuals with disabilities: A review and synthesis of the literature. Journal of Special Education Technology , 21 (2), 47-64.
Bryant, B. R., & Seay, P. C. (1998). The technology-related assistance to individuals with disabilities act: Relevance to individuals with learning disabilities and their advocates. Journal of Learning Disabilities , 31 (1), 4-15.
Brown, C. (1992). Assistive technology computers and persons with disabilities. Communications of the ACM , 35 (5), 36-45.
Cook, A. M., & Polgar, J. M. (2014). Assistive technologies: Principles and practice . Elsevier Health Sciences.
Section508.gov (n.d). Assistive Technology Act of 1998. Retrieved from https://www.section508.gov/assistive-technology-act-1998
