PART I
Research in the psychology of behavior uses laboratory animals. It is important that all scientists who use these animals ensure that they are housed well and treated humanely. Laws have been set to ensure that animals are protected this way. However, some people are particularly upset about the use of animals for research and teaching. Neil R. Carson presents two reasons justifying the use of animals in physiology research. She argues that the research is both humane and worthwhile.
According to the author, humane treatment deals with a correct procedure and handling of the animals. Laboratories used in the research are kept in good health, comfortable locations, and proper sanitary conditions. During the research, animals are treated with analgesics and anesthetics so that they do not suffer during and after surgical procedures. Researchers further know how to prevent any infections through the use of antibiotics and proper surgical procedures. Industrially developed societies have also come up with strict laws that prevent the inhumane handling of animals. Additionally, researchers that use animals have to get approval before they use animals for experiments. In a wide variety of laboratories, animals are treated humanely. Most researchers have no reason for mistreating animals.
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One example to ascertain whether animals are treated humanely is to look at their handling in laboratories and compare it for other use. According to the author, pet-owning causes more suffering to animals more than scientific research. While scientific researchers have to receive permission from a board of experts, most pet owners do not have any permission from an expert. According to Cooper (1984), statistics show that humane owners kill fifty times dogs and cats than scientific research. Human societies and pet owners kill pets through abandonment, poor dieting, and poor sanitation. Scientific research is subject to periodic inspections to ensure that their house is clean and that pets diet and exercise regularly.
The use of animals for scientific research has resulted in several advancements in different fields of science. Neil R. Carson justifies that we use animals for several purposes. The mere fact of having a pet is a form of exploitation since we use them for our entertainment. Apart from having animals as pets, we eat their meat and eggs, drink their milk, turn their hides to leather, and extract their hormones to treat diseases. It comes out clearly that we use animals for different purposes without justifying whether these uses are worthwhile. One can support scientific research with animals by looking at the benefits that these animals have to humans. Research with animals has been found to help other animals. We can live without eating or hunting animals. However, without using animals for research, we may never make progress in treating and understanding diseases.
One example that the author notes that using animals for scientific research is worthwhile is with treating a disease like strokes. The disease is initiated by obstruction of the blood vessels in the brain resulting in paralysis. Research on animals by which nerve cells communicate has led to significant discoveries in the causes of death of brain cells. The research was not directed towards a specific goal but has resulted in multifarious advantages. For instance, based on the nerve and brain cells experiments, it has been found that brain damage can be prevented by administering a drug that hinders a certain kind of neural communication. The research has been worthwhile because it has led to diverse medical treatments. Even though the animals are subject to surgery, the procedure is handled medically correctly. Using animals in researching the human physiology has led to other important discoveries such as the causes of schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, drug additions, Parkinson’s disease and other diseases.
PART II
Genes direct the growth and development of an organism. They form an integral part of the studies of the physiology of behavior. Genetic research helps researchers understand the role of physiological difference between different individuals. Behavioral characteristics such as personality, mental disorders, and talent have been found to run in families. While genetic link can be clear, a defective gene can interfere with neurological and brain development in other cases. Genetic methods must be used to reveal links between heredity and behavior. One powerful genetic method to show this is through twin studies.
Twin studies have been used to evaluate the influence of genes on a particular trait. For this study, the concordance rate for twins is evaluated between identical and fraternal twins. Identical twins have identical genotypes and contain similar genes and chromosomes. On the other hand, fraternal twins share about 50 percent of chromosomes and genes. For this study, investigators first study records in pairs of twins to identify the pair that has a particular trait. If both have the disorder, they are said to be concordant. If only one has the trait, the twins are said to be discordant. If a certain trait has a genetic bias, it will be more apparent identical twins compared to fraternal twins. If the trait does not have a genetic bias, it will not be apparent in an identical twin. Twin studies have been used as strong evidence for a certain trait.
Twin studies have been used to suggest that heredity plays a significant role in sexual orientation among both men and women. According to a study of homosexuality; males, where at least one of them identified as homosexual, were examined. If both twins were homosexual, then the twins are said to be concordant for that trait. If only one of them identified as homosexual, they are said to be discordant for the trait. Homosexuality will have a genetic bias if the percentage of identical twins is higher than that of fraternal twins. The research found that the concordance rate was 52 percent for identical twins and 22 percent for fraternal twins. The difference of 30 percent is significant enough to consider one’s sexuality as hereditary. Evidence from the research shows that heredity is linked to a person’s sexual orientation. This is contradictory with the popular notion that sexual orientation is a moral issue.
Twin studies have been used in mental disorders such as schizophrenia. Scientific research has shown that the concordance rate for schizophrenia in twins is four times higher for identical twins than for fraternal twins. The finding provides evidence that schizophrenia is a heritable trait. Other applications to twin studies are in social anxiety disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. Panic attacks are highly prevalent among people that have a history of panic attacks. Studies of autism have shown that the trait has a high prevalence among identical twins. The concordance rate among identical twins was identified as 70 percent whereas it was approximately 5 percent for fraternal twins. Another study revealed the concordance rate for autistic spectrum disorders as 90 percent for identical twins compared to 10 percent for fraternal twins. Twin studies has also revealed that genes influence other characteristics such as the prevalence of obesity, alcoholism, personality traits, and other mental disorders.
References
Carlson, N. (1977). Physiology of behavior . Boston [Mass.]: Allyn and Bacon.
Cooper, E. (1984). Stress, immunity, and aging . New York: M. Dekker.
