Color and Short-Term Memory

Previous studies concerning color and short-term memory have found more arousal with warm colors than cool colors. It is hypothesized in this study that due to high arousal with warm colors, there will be a higher recall rate for red and yellow text rather than blue and green text. Participants were solicited through personal email contacts, social media sites, SONA, and on the website Psychological Research on the Net. Seventeen males and sixty-five females submitted surveys, one person identified their gender as "other," for a total of eighty-three participants. A one-way ANOVA compared words recalled from the five different colors (black, red, blue, yellow or green). Contrary to what was hypothesized in this study, there was no statistical difference overall, and the model revealed no difference in recall based on color contrary to predictions: (F (4, 75) = 1.93, p > .05. Yet, despite that there is no overall significance in my study's small sample there is relevant data between blue and yellow. The study depicted that the average words recalled for warm colors was higher at 6.96 as compared to the average words recalled for cool colors, which was 5.49. These findings support the study hypothesis on the notion that warm colors are more arousing, hence, more warm colored words are recalled than cool colored words. However, the study found no significance between words recalled and amount of sleep, tobacco use, or gender. 

Color and Short-Term Memory 

Introduction 

Colors are seen every day, in everything. Our brains process objects and information consistently, so the question is, does color affect our memory? The question studied how different color texts affect people's ability to recall from short-term memory. If someone read off a phone number to a restaurant for their friend to call to order food and the friend entered the right number, this person has used short-term memory. There is short-term memory and long-term memory. Short-term memory is described as having the ability to hold and recall a small amount of information within a short amount of time. Long-term memory is the ability to hold and recall information because it is stored for a more extended period of time (McLeod, 1970). 

Research with colors has been studied on human behavior: with an attraction to others, food, mood, and more. 

Conversely, there is a gap in research regarding how colors can affect people's cognitive abilities given that various studies have offered mixed answers on what colors do to people's cognitive tasks. The scholars in the relationship between color and short-term memory have stated that there has been reported to be a higher recall for the yellow and red colors as compared to the green and blue colors in the case where they had to respond to surveys or texts. Therefore, the instructions of the surveys, which were highlighted in red and yellow were more memorable to the respondents compared to those that were highlighted in blue or green. That is because the red color is associated with caution and danger and often invokes the need to pay attention to every detail for the people in general. On the flipside, the blue color is associated with calmness, creativity, and the participants of a study, which has words typed or highlighted in blue or green; expect creativity feelings invoked in them. 

Nonetheless, the researchers seem to disagree on the effects of the colors on short-term memory particularly in the case of blue versus red. The researchers seemingly have also not come to common ground when it comes to the agreements of the implication of colors on the general cognitive performance. However, most of the researchers have agreed that the red color boosts cognitive performance in the tasks that involve paying extra attention to details and those that have to do with the retrieval of the memory in the case of the participants. The red color was also found to increase the willingness and tendency to proofread a document by the participants of a study by 31% more than blue did. That confirms the role of the red color in the association of a text with the attention to details including the little ones. 

According to Wolters & Goudsmit (2005), short-term memory can be affected by arousal. In their study, it was found that the high arousal increased memory recall rates. Research has indicated that the warm colors are associated with arousal more than the cool colors. One question they wanted to answer was if memory recall was dependent on age, and it was revealed that age does not affect the formation of flashbulb memories (Wolters & Goudsmit, 2005). However, there are discrepancies that arise with other studies based on the effects of age on memory recall of individuals. There is a need for further research to portray if age has any effect on the ease of recalling memories based on particular events. Jesky (1985) discovered that the natural colors are better remembered rather than odd colors. Like an image of a girl outside with green grass and a blue sky is better recalled that this same girl is playing outside on bluegrass and a green sky (Jesky, 1985). Birren's (1950) finding was that warm colors increase arousal more than cool colors. Kim's (2010) study goes along with Birren's finding that warm colors are more arousing while cool colors are found to be more relaxing. 

Though contrary, Huchendorf (2007) found that there was no significant difference for recall in different color categories. With the subjects in different groups who received different color packets with information to recall, there was no difference between the groups (Huchendorf, 2007). Huchendorf believes that more prolonged exposure to the colors would show a significance in short term memory effects. According to Fernandez and Rosen (2000), the contrast between the text and background colors affect retention and memory. The studies deliver differentiated findings about the impact of colors on memory recalls, and therefore, bring the need for in-depth research to be performed so as to give a solid argument about this phenomenon. This study is hinged on how arousal from different types of colors affect memory recall. However, it is imperative to point out that the arousals resulting from the colors could mainly have a short-term effect on memory recall of individuals. This will be significant in demystifying the aspects of different color categories that affect the memory recall of individuals in the short-term. 

Literature Review 

Borges, Stepnowsky, and Holt (1977) studied the relationships for children and adults in recollection in words, pictures with color, and pictures with no color. It was found that, in adults, recall rates for colored words and colored pictures were higher than black and white words and images. This leads me to believe further that there will be a statistical difference in my study's data due to the fact that color had higher recall rates for adults in this memory study. 

Varior et al. (2016) explore the topic of human re-identification in their extrapolation of the discussion revolving around the link between color and short-term memory. Human re-identification is considered a tedious task in the process of visual surveillance. Most of the times, the witnesses of a particular crime such as those involving the traffic may have a hard time identifying the victims or the perpetrators of the crime. Many perpetrators of such crimes have walked free in the past given that they are not easily remembered. However, with the interventions discussed in the paper, the issue of traffic offenses may soon be reduced as witnesses remember the perpetrators and victims. The authors present a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) architecture of Siamese origin used to process regions of images that is done in a sequential manner and enhances the discriminative capability of local feature presentation by maximizing on the use of contextual information. The authors also explore the connections in the feedback and the mechanisms of the internal gating regarding the LSTM cells to enable their model to memorize the spatial dependencies and propagate the relevant contextual information selectively via the network. The baseline algorithm without the LSTM units and promising results demonstrate improved performance as compared to the state of the art methods in the datasets such as CUHKo3, Market-1501, and VIPeR. The authors concluded that the visualization of the internal mechanism of the LSTM cells indicates that meaningful patterns can be learned using the methods based on the Siamese architecture. The architecture is based on multiple colors with each of them having a symbolic meaning and representing a part of the brain in the improvement of the short-term memory. Therefore, the researchers have been able to identify the connection between the colors and their use in enhancing the short-term memory as per the explanations made in the research regarding the use of architecture to enhance re-identification process and the short-term memory at large. 

Postle (2015) further analyzes the understanding of the relationship between colors and short-term memory. The author states that the comprehension of the neural bases of the visual short-term memory is based on the definition that the short-term memory is the ability of the brain to recollect information over shorter phases of time. Two remarkable developments revolutionize short-term memory among human beings. The first development is the utilization of the methods in the statistical machine learning which often is a variant of the analysis of the multivariate patterns (MVPA) to the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and the electroencephalographic (EEG) data sets (Postle, 2015). The second development is the advancement in the knowledge of the physiology and the roles of the oscillations of the neurons. The researchers have associated the pattern analysis process to the oscillatory processes taking place in the human brain. One of the consequences that the scholars found in the process of associating the human brain with the short term memory and the role of colors in the same have identified that the commonly observed physiological signatures that have in the past been interpreted as directly related to the retention of information in the visual short term memory (Postle, 2015). 

The signatures may require further interpretation as more general and state-related transitions that are meant to accompany the cognitive task performance. In the discussion of the analyzed data, the MVPA reveals that the elevated delay-period activity has neither specificity nor the necessity of the short-term memory storage (Postle, 2015). The MVPA has also been found by the scientists to track the dynamics of mental coding and its control over the short-term memory. When the focal attention and short-term memory are unearthed, the neural activity in the human brain tracks the focus of the attention and the patterns that are involved in between the process. The sensory account of the visual working memory storage has been a topic of interest among the various scientists across the globe. 

Xu (2017) provides an account of the reevaluation of the sensory aspect of the visual working memory storage in the human brain. The recent findings from the decoding studies concerned with human fMRI have provided the renewal of support for the sensory account of the visual working memory storage. The researchers identifying with the account state that the areas of the brain involved in the sensory processing also play vital roles in the temporary storage of the information in the visual working memory storage. However, both the structural and experimental evidence supports the posterior and the prefrontal, parietal cortices as the regions of the brain play roles that are more significant in the storage of the visual working memory. 

Studies regarding the human fMRI patterns and especially those concerned with the decoding process have continually highlighted the involvement of the sensory account in the storage of the visual working memory and the researchers, therefore, argue for storage of the visual working memory in the human brain using a sensory account. Xu (2017) reviews examining evidence from the human behavior, studies involving the transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), the fMRI decoding and the monkey neurophysiological studies. Contrary to the opinion of most of the researchers in the past regarding the sensory accounts of the visual working memory storage, the existing evidence provides a little support for the same. On the other hand, taking the ability to resist distraction and the existence of the top-down feedback into account, the VWM related activities in the brain's sensory areas appear to reflect the feedback signals that indicate the storage for the VWM in other parts of the brain. All in all, substantial evidence in the previous and existing studies indicates that the prefrontal and parietal regions of the human brain play roles that are more significant in the VWM storage than the sensory areas. 

In Mehta and Zhu's (2009) study, they explored the cognitive effects of the colors blue and red in six different studies. They found that the color red increases performance on detail-oriented tasks, while blue increases performance on creative tasks. This goes along with warm colors being more arousing and, I believe, leading to a better recall rate for word memorization in my study. Wichmann, Sharpe, and Gegenfurtner's (2002) studied the influence of color on memory by showing participants images with color and in black and white. They found that the participants performed 5%-10% better at recalling the images with color rather than black and white images. With this study, I am still confident that colors can affect my participants' recall rates. 

Mammarella et al. (2016) relate the differences in memory for emotional information regarding age. One discussion on the topic emphasizes the preference for the processing of emotions in older adults, which reflects the self-relevant and socioemotional goals. The researchers, in that case, evaluate the degree to which this preference in memory is modulated by color and its role in the formation of the emotions among the older adults in society. Mammarella et al. (2016) describe two experiments in which the younger and the older adults were asked to study a series of words that were considered effective in experiment one and the affective pictures in experiment 2. The research participants were also presented with a yes/no memory recognition takes. Particularly, the pictures and the words were colored according to the following valence-color relationships. 

Green was associated with positivity while red was associated with negativity and blue was associated with neutrality. Each of the studies outlined was inclusive of the congruent and incongruent associations. The congruent association was denied by green for positivity, and red standing for negativity indicated the incongruent link. For both experiments performed, the respondents showed that there was an advantage for the congruent associations as compared to the other types of the valence-color pairings that placed emphasis on a strong joint effect of color and the affective valence in memory. More specifically to the studies, the memory of the older adults was sensitive to the positive-green stimuli only. Mammarella et al. (2016) discuss the results in the line of the mechanisms that were found to underlie the effects of positivity in memory and the effect of color on the encoding of the effect of color on the emotional memory. 

From past research and information, I believe that warm colors are more arousing, and that arousal leads to better memory recollection, so with warm colors like red and orange, I believe that people would have the ability to recall more words than those in the cool color category, like blue and green. With past research, Huchendorf's study showed to be inconclusive following their hypothesis, which was thought to be an affect from not enough colors. To avoid this, I would make exposure time is not limited to these different colors. I would also want to make sure that the colors are true and not too dark or not too light. 

Berry et al. (2018) talk about the limits of the visual working memory in children. The research performed recently demonstrates that when the adults are instructed to prioritize a serial position in the visual working memory, they are able to improve their performance for the selected item at a cost compared to the non-prioritized items. According to the explanations given by the researchers, the executive control appears to play a crucial role in the ability, and there is an increased likelihood for the participants to remember a recently presented item, which is relatively automatic and has a possibility of being driven by perceptual mechanisms. In three different experiments involving 7 to 10-year-old respondents concerning their ability to prioritize the items in the working memory. Their ability was investigated using a visual task displayed as a sequence. The total number of respondents involved in the research was 208. The researchers further explored the connection between individual differences in the working memory among the respondents and performance on the experimental task. It was observed that the respondents of the study were unable to prioritize either experiment one and two or even the third one in a sequence involving three items. Conversely, the large recency implications for the final item, experiment 3, were observed across all the other experiments. The findings of the research performed indicate that the children may not have the relevant resources to execute the prioritization of the items that are found within the sequence when they are directed to do so by the researchers. However, the consistent recency boosts for the third experiment show that the children involved in the study have automatic memory benefits for the stimuli that have been encountered most recently. Therefore, the experiment regarding the connection between color and short-term memory may be affected by such setbacks. 

Method 

Participants 

Participants were solicited through personal email contacts, social media sites, SONA, and on the website Psychological Research on the Net. Their ages were 18 and older. Seventeen males and sixty-five females submitted surveys, one person identified their gender as "other," for a total of eighty-three participants. All participants were volunteers. 

Materials 

The main materials used for this particular study was the survey and emails sent to the participants of the research. All interventions and assessment are the questions in the survey. The surveys targeted individuals above the age of 18 years, which was the standard of the research. The individuals assigned the surveys were randomly assigned a block, which included the 30 words in different colored text (black, red, blue, green, and yellow). After memorizing the words with the given 90 seconds (they could continue if they wished not to use all of the time provided), they would be prompted with 30 blank spaces to recall the words they remembered from the list. The survey was then completed. 

Results 

It was predicted that the warm colors (red and yellow) would have a higher recall rate than cool colors (blue and green) due to the arousal the warm colors omit compared to the control color, black. I computed a one-way ANOVA comparing words recalled of the participants from one of the five different colors (black, red, blue, yellow or green). Opposing to what was hypothesized in this study, the model revealed no difference in recall based on color contrary to predictions: (F (4, 75) = 1.93, p > .05. With a larger group of people in my study, there may have been a significant difference shown between yellow and blue (p = .019). Yet, despite that there is no overall significance in my study's small sample there is data between blue and yellow. 

The average words recalled for warm colors was 6.96 compared to the average words recalled for cool colors at 5.49 supports the hypothesis that due to warm colors being more arousing there would be more words recalled than cool colored words. The most words recalled were from yellow, which averaged 7.60. The least words recalled were from blue, which averaged 4.29. There was no significance found between words recalled and amount of sleep, tobacco use, or gender. I expected that someone who smoked daily or slept under five hours would have less amount of words recalled, but it made no statistical difference. 

The research respondents were composed of 15 male participants, 65 female respondents and 3 respondents had their gender information missing. In the research to find out the effects of color on short term memory, there were more than four times as many women as men which is a clear indicator that the male target respondents were not willing to be part of the research. It was also essential to consider a factor contributing to the research such as whether the participants consume alcohol or not. From the analyzed data using the ANOVA, it was found that data from 80 of the respondents were valid while 3 of the research participants had missing information. Thirteen participants use tobacco every day. According to the research data, 1 of the participants uses alcohol products every week. Eight of the respondents were reported to use tobacco monthly while 58 of the respondents taking part in the study were reported to avoid the use of tobacco, and thus, they never used it and related substances. 

Discussion 

Due to warm colors being more arousing, the arousal leads to better memory recollection. I hypothesized that warm colors would have a higher memory rate. Despite past literature and studies that indicate a significance in my hypothesis, my hypothesis was not supported overall, but there were some significant differences present between the average words recalled in warm colors and cool colors. The results are not too surprising given the fact that I had a small pool of volunteers (eighty-three). The issue of arousal by colors to boost short-term memory has been found to yield fruits towards the betterment of studies in that line. The same results were found in Huchendorf (2007) where the ANOVA found no statistical difference in words recalled with warm colors and cool colors. Given the literature reviewed and the results of the study collected, colors have generally been found to increase the arousal if the individuals such as those under the study whereby the warm colors are known to bring more arousal than the cool colors. The researchers have stated the best examples of the warm colors as yellow and red and the cool colors being blue and green. The above-listed colors bring about different feelings and remembrance rates for the participants of research, for instance. The warm colors are reported to be more artistic and thus advance in space, which is different from the cool colors that recede in space and appear more soothing. 

After the colors lead to the arousal of the individual, the human brain facilitates the improvement in the memory. When undergoing the arousal changes, it is established that the hormonal transitions in the human brain lead to an advancement in the short-term memory of the individual. The study of the effects of arousal proved that it occurs in the human brain regardless of their age and time period. The human beings who have gone through the arousal process may also find it easier to remember vivid details of an occurrence or happening after being aroused by the particular hormonal changes in their bodies. However, the researchers have also found out that some of the events used in the arousal may be traumatic and very arousing. On the other hand, colors have been found to be less traumatic for the individuals involved in the research. From the results of the study, it is agreeable that color leads to the arousal in the human brain and arousal leads to the improvement in the short-term memory. Therefore, it can be argued that colors increase the short-term memory of an individual. In that case, the warm colors have been found by research to increase memory after a relationship between colors and memory performance has been established. The scientists, while trying to explain how colors affect the short-term memory, have often started with descriptions of the significance of color in the different settings and detailed explanation of the nature of the human brain follows. It has been found that the colors affect different settings such as in events and occurrences and the nature of the human brain tends to associate memorable experienced and events with the warm colors such as red and yellow than the cool colors such as green and blue. 

Current scientists and past research have affirmed that color is the most relevant visual experience to human beings. The role of color is summed up in its ability to function as a powerful channel of information to the human cognitive system and has thus been found to play a substantial role in the human working memory and its performance. Due to that, it has been reported that color is significantly important and effective in marketing, communication, sport and educational settings since the sector all require some level of mastery and short-term memory among the individuals. Marketing studies have attributed brand recognition to the use of various colors that arouse the memory of the target customers and thus contribute to the building of customer loyalty. A more in-depth marketing plethora of studies has established that the use of the various colors in the marketing campaigns for the various brands influence the attention of the individuals, the attitudes that the customers have for the products and services that the company offers and pressures them to make buying decisions that favor the companies. 

More research on the use of colors for effective marketing has established that the colored advertisements attract more customers than the uncolored ones, which maintains their brand recognition. In the educational setting, a higher demand is placed on excellent academic performance. The students with high cognitive abilities are known to have high academic achievement. The researchers in the field of education relate the students' cognitive abilities to their nature of paying attention in class, remember the content they have been taught and the abilities to think and comprehend their lessons. Educators have found it necessary to come up with the various strategies that facilitate the learning process, and the role of the colors motivates the students to learn and build on their educational experiences. 

In the medical sector, colors can be used to fix the memory-related health issues. Some of those issues may include dyslexia, autism, and learning difficulty. The use of color in addition to the other medical interventions helps the patients to follow and understand the learning programs better. The use of color in the clinical intervention's for dyslexia have been found to be effective in reducing the difficulties that the patients may experience in the process of reading. The same intervention can be used for patients who have autism. The reading speed of the patients who have autism and using colored charts was reported to improve which signifies the importance of the color in boosting the cognitive abilities of the patients. Medical research also states that intervention in colors can be used to treat the patients who have Alzheimer disease, which influences the memory abilities of the patients. 

When it came to the effects of memory recall and smoking, sleeping and gender, there was no difference, either. I wonder if the larger pool of participants would show the statistical difference, but there are no indications. Researchers concerned with smoking issues among individuals associate increased smoking to reduced recall. Scientists have found smoking as a habit that damages the brain areas such as the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus. The regions mentioned above of the brain are concerned with memory. A link between smoking and the loss of memory suggests that it may be a tedious process to have habitual smokers to remember the various instances or encounters in their lives by using the colors to help them with the process. Scientists have found that sleep improves the human memory and the lack of sleep or the interference of it has been found to lead to the advancement of memory loss in the short term. Mostly, the role of sleep in improving short-term memory is observed in children and older adults. Therefore, a combination of good sleep and warm colors may evoke arousal in human beings, which leads to the improvement of short-term memory. 

One strength in my experiment is how it is able to reach a large variety of volunteers to participate and is able to be taken easily on any monitor. Yet, it limits the experiment to only online. With an online survey, participants could cheat to skew the results, and it would not be possible to know if it happened. Some participants' answers were unable to be used, as they did not fill in any of the blank spaces to complete their survey. 

One limitation is that there was a small sample size and I would want to have a bigger sample to be able to determine if there would be a statistically significant difference between yellow and blue. The last limitation is that there is no possible way to know if someone has a photographic memory, dyslexia or any other processing struggles and heightened to the brain. 

To further this study, I could reach out and receive a larger sample and expose the participants to the colors longer to see how longer exposures to the color can affect them as well. To test this hypothesis in another study, it could be done with photographs and in colored rooms while asking questions to see one's memory affected by color. 

Experimentally, it has been proven that females excel more at colors than males do. A series of scientific studies have found out and reported that women are significantly better at discriminating among colors more than men do. Therefore, such studies have contributed to the common notion that men are color blind. However, the belief that men are color blind has been found to emanate from the fact that they are not conversant with many colors and therefore tend to stay away from the studies that involve the differentiation of colors and other related research studies. Therefore, the belief that women excel better at colors explains why the women involved in the research were more than four times the men who participated in the same research. More in-depth research identifies that men require longer wavelengths than women do to identify the same given hue of a color. The study of colors holds that the longer wavelengths are associated with the redder colors. In that case, the men are expected to denote the warmer colors than the women do. Researchers associating the role of colors to short-term memory have reported that warmer colors can make people remember more than the cooler colors regardless of their gender. Therefore, the appeal to the male participants to induce their short-term memory is to include the warmer colors since they will be more attracted to the red color as an example of warm color. On the side of the women, the choice of colors to increase the short-term memory is not restricted to their wavelength requirements to denote colors. 

The use of tobacco affects the brain which in term affects color vision and short-term memory. In addition to excessive smoking of tobacco is a known cause of widespread cancer issues, the use of tobacco products has also been reported by various scholars to lead to the alteration of color vision between the eyes and the brain. Extensive research has associated loss of vision in particular patients across the globe to the continued use of tobacco products with the best example being smoking. The effects of tobacco use on color vision may lead to various levels of color blindness which may lead to the lack of denotation for the particular shades of colors. That is likely to reduce the short-term memory of the users which leads to a reduction in the possibility of relating the role of color in improving the short-term memory of the participants. 

Conclusion 

The role of colors in enhancing the short-term memory of human beings has been put into various uses in the various sectors across the world. Increasingly, researchers have found that colors and especially the warm colors are known to lead to arousal, which in turn leads to the enhanced performance in the short-term memory of the individuals. The warm colors such as red and yellow have thus been linked to the increase in the short-term memory compared to the cool colors such as green and blue. The role of colors in the increase in memorability has found applications in the education, marketing, and health sectors. 

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