The contemporary issue of immigration to the US and the development of new ethnic groups are complex. The social and economic repercussions of the expansion of the county and the US position as a global hegemony is rooted have its roots in the immigrations. While the Mexicans were in search for employment, the Dutch were looking for a place to settle due to the religion tensions in the Netherlands. The history of the Dutch-American in the 19th and 20th centuries evolved, and Netherlands played a pivotal role in how the Dutch identified themselves. The Dutch-American is a suitable group for study because their struggles in shaping their identities were long-standing and profound. The Dutch have been in existence in America long enough to enable the historians to trail their lengthy themes for historical change. Mexican immigration is rooted in the history. After Mexico’s defeat against the US in the mid-19 th century, it lost more than half of their land. Mexican immigrations motivated due to the high demand for laborers in the US especially during the World War I.
The first wave of Dutch immigration from Netherlands to North America is dated from the early seventeenth century which was characterized by commercial enterprises. Fort Nassau became the second settlement for the Dutch immigrants in North America. The continual immigration of the Dutch brought about culture assimilation of the Netherlands and North American. The immigration is the foundation of the now renowned Dutch-American culture. Three major waves brought the Dutch people into North American ( Rubenstein & Ziewacz, 2014) . The first wave occurred in the 17th century which was a result of colonizing and exploring the new world. The second wave is known as the “ Great Migration” which started in the 1840s, and it was triggered by the agricultural crisis as well as religious tensions in the Netherlands. The final wave occurred after the end of World War I, and it was motivated by the Netherlands government so as to relieve the economic problems.
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Dutch immigration commenced in the mid-1840s due to an agricultural crisis and persecution of religious seceders. Agricultural crisis including the failure of the rye crops and potatoes due to diseases were among the motivations that led to the second wave of immigration in America. Nevertheless, religious tensions, especially in the Netherlands, were the most significant motive of the Dutch immigration and as a result long-standing effects were experienced. Immigration was essentially encouraged by a movement of the “ Seceder ” within the officials’ of the Dutch Reformed church which was located in the Netherlands ( Rubenstein & Ziewacz, 2014) . Some of the individuals and the congregation rejected what they termed as the liberation of the Dutch church. They perceived this mission as a way of moving away from the deep dedication to Calvinism. Calvinists naturally were afraid of secularism, and they were suspicious of the new forms of religion in the country. They desired to control the local churches so that they would not adapt modern influences.
As a result, the Dutch government reacted by trying to suppress the seceder movement ( Rubenstein & Ziewacz, 2014) . The Dutch government started by breaking up the meeting places of the seceder movement, billeting soldiers to families who supported its cause and levying fines on the pastors. The hostility expressed by the Dutch government continued until 1848. In 1834 the seceder movement officially decided to break from the Netherlands state religion. Some of the congregation which was led by the pastors emigrated in the US in the 1840s and 1850s ( Van Faassen, 2015) . Most of them resolved to settle in the mid-west was such as Oostburg, Holland, and Wisconsin.
In Michigan, the Dutch immigrants settled in Lower Peninsula and founded the communities of Zeeland and Holland. Pella, Lowa is perhaps a good example of how it hosted the new Dutch immigrants. These communities continued practicing most of the traditions for many generations ( Van Faassen, 2015) . These communities continued to preserve their marks of Dutch origins even in the 21st century. As the farmlands in the US continued to be more expensive and less plentiful in the 19th century, the Dutch immigrants started to settle in other American cities such as Grand Rapids and Chicago. During their immigration in the new world the Dutch, they remained true and loyal to the Dutch Reformed church which had its foundations in the reformation in the 16th century.
Although the seceders were initially in small numbers a decade later, Dutch Seceder church was established in 1834, and the number grew to 40,000. The Seceder had been the minority with 65% of the Dutch immigrants being Hervormde Kerk, and the Catholics were 20% while the seceders were only 13%. Despite these statistics the seceder comprised approximately 50% of the Dutch immigrants in 1840s ( Zwart, 2016) . Early Dutch leaders were also on board such as Albertus van Raalte who is best known as the founder of Holland, Michigan and other such as Cornelius Vander Meulen in Zeeland, Martin Ypma in Vriesland and many others. As the migration progressed in the 1850s, Seceders tended to settle in some of the Dutch colonies while the Hervormde immigrants liked to settle in the cities ( Kramer, 2014) . Hence the seceders formed the nucleus of the first two primary Dutch settlement Holland, Michigan, and Pell, Lowa which were founded in 1847.
The notable contribution of the Dutch immigrants in Michigan is the true religion that is rooted in the society especially the Christian Reformed Church. The Dutch made a spiritual contribution among the Christians and it has been preserved over the years. Sunday was set aside but the other days (Monday-Saturdays) they were actively involved in farming. The Dutch had skills in supplying vegetables as well as reclaiming wetlands. The architectural features in Michigan indicate the impacts that the Dutch had on the American society. Additionally, the Dutch are remembered for taking part in the construction of Christian schools and colleges in the region. the Dutch employees working in the farms and factories observed a strong work ethic that was emulated by the Americans. The prominence of Christian social services agencies such as the Bethany Christian Services and Pine Rest Christian Psychiatric Hospital are rooted from the Dutch traditions.
In 1847 approximately seven hundred Dutch immigrants (secedes) settled close to a Native American village and also near Lake Michigan. No actual fights erupted doing that time, and it would slowly become a town is known as Holland, Michigan, however, two years later the Native American inhabitants moved out of the areas and settled far to the north, and they never returned. The reason why they left their inhabitants was that the Dutch seceders had brought smallpox in their region. Furthermore, the Dutch settlers had livestock that trampled in their vegetable gardens ( Walker, 2008) . The immigrations to Holland Michigan continued in the 19th century, and as a result, the immigrations were referred as the “ followers’ immigration .” The immigration was given this name because numerous people were inspired to migrate from Netherlands to Michigan because of the exchange of individual letters among the new Dutch settlers and old relatives in Netherlands and hence it is an illustration of a chain migration. Members of the Dutch settlers initially joined their relatives in the new world but later spread in other regions to form new towns.
The first migration of the Mexicans into the US occurred in the mid-19th century due to the Mexican-American war. After Mexico had lost to the US, it signed an agreement known as the “ Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ” in 1848. Mexico agreed to the secession of some of the regions which are today covering New Mexico, California, Texas, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, Colorado and some parts of Wyoming. Besides acquiring vast territory, the US granted citizenship to thousands of Mexican who decided to settle in Michigan and hence the fraction of Mexican population grew. The Mexican immigration led to the growth and development of agriculture and infrastructure. On the other hand, Mexico experienced a crisis or economic underdevelopment. However, economic prosperity boomed with the rule of President Porfirio Diaz. Despite the economic growth, Mexico economy underwent negative changes.
Meanwhile, in the US the railway development system in the southwest, as well as the industrial expansion of the post-civil war, led to a great growth in the economy. While the reforms were happening the demand for labor was escalating to assist in developing and expanding the US. Additionally, the execution of laws in the US such as the 1882 Chinese Exclusions Act and the 1907 Gentleman’s Agreement with Japan, the demand for labor was massive. As a result, the US had to look for assistance from its southern neighbor. Therefore the US recruiters in charge of the railroads, mining industries and agricultural went to Mexico in search of laborers and fortunately the Mexicans readily agreed.
Through the consolidation of the rule of President Diaz known as Hacienda system, thousands of the Mexicans working in farm found themselves without work. These displaced workers were desperately looking for any work, and they were readily willing to head to the north and look for jobs. The trip to the north to seek for employment was made much easier through the integration of the Mexican and American railways. Now the labor suppliers (Mexican immigrants) could be able to have a direct connection to the US demand for immigrants’ labor. The first main waves of the immigration of the Mexicans occurred from 1900-1930. This migration is known as the ‘the Great Migration .”. As seen, the Mexican immigrants had a positive impact on the US economic through the provision of labor and thus the trend increased tremendously at the beginning of world war I. the Americans who had to leave their country and defend and hence numerous vacancies were left behind ( Ten Harmsel, 2002) .
The poorest classes grabbed this opportunity and occupied the urban industrial jobs, and no one was left to replace them in their farm jobs. In 1917, the US government had drafted an act known as “the immigration act” which was meant to impose literacy tax on immigrants from Mexico trying to enter the US. The act primary objective was to curb the Mexican immigration which had increased tremendously leading to an enormous Mexican population in the US. Nevertheless due to the high demand of labor the US had no other choice but to exempt the Mexicans from the literacy taxes.
Instead, in a bid of protecting and preserving the agriculture and the economy, the US government issued the Mexicans with special labor contracts such that they could work in the field. Therefore this is another factor which led to the mass immigration of the Mexicans in the US during the 1910s and 1920s. Thousands of Mexican farmers were displaced due to the fall of President Diaz regime and failure of the hacienda system made as well as the beginning of a ten-year civil arrest deteriorated the situation in Mexico. The chaos and violence that was brought about by the Mexican revolution spurred significant amounts of political refugees who were trying to flee to other countries. The degree of the immigration process was very high to the point that approximately 8000 refugees crossed the US border in one day in 1913. The plights of the Mexican country and labor demand in the early decade contributed to the high immigration rates that occurred in the 1920s.
However, the American economy took a different turn in the late 1920s after the stock crash market in New York. With the commencement of the great depression, the average Americans were forced to roams the streets to look for work. The anti-immigrant sentiments had initially started long before the great depression. However, people began to overlook the assistance that the Mexican immigrants had provided all along ( Gonzalez, 2015) . They had been a great assistance to the US through their provision of labor in the agricultural, mining and industrial fields and hence had aided in the growth of the economy. When the Americans were unable to get employment, they started resenting the Mexican immigrants and the hatred intensified.
According to the Americans, the Mexican immigrants had created an atmosphere of low wages in the business industry and additionally they had stolen their jobs which they perceived as rightfully theirs ( Gonzalez, 2015) . From 1931 the Mexicans whether they were in the country legally, illegally, native born or US citizens they were expatriated back to Mexico in huge sums. Some Mexicans who were also unable to find jobs in the US went back to Mexico voluntarily. Nonetheless, most of the Mexicans did not return to Mexico. The repatriation movement in the 1930s saw approximately five hundred thousand Mexicans deported. Somewhat good times would eventually come later for the Mexicans .
By 1942 the US conditions began to change. America was engaged in war and the Americans had jobs. Moreover the just like it was previously during the war that Mexican immigrants also found a place in the US regarding employment. Once again the agricultural sector needed workers and once again the American government started a labor contract program so as to supply these workers. In in 1942, the Bracero Program was created, but after the war, the program was terminated in 1947 ( Gonzalez, 2015) . This time around the U.S employers had become so fond of the new cheap kind of labor, and hence in 1948 they convinced the government to restore the Bracero program. It was extended to 1950s and 60s until it was abolished in 1964. By this time nearly 5 million Mexican citizens had been issued with temporary labor contracts.
The Bracero years had coincided with Mexico economic hardships and as a result had propelled the Mexican immigrants to move to the northern regions. During this period, the ruling government in Mexico was making feeble efforts to revive the economy through the distribution of land to the peasant. However, it failed to provide capital and resources required to attend to the fields ( Gonzalez, 2015) . Consequently, the Mexicans did not have anything to do with the land and their needs for cash increased. Mexico also made another effort with a program known as Substitution Industrialization (ISI). The plan was to ensure that the country would rid its dependence on imports through the production of products within the country that could substitute these imports. The plan was intended to limit foreign investments and also needed duties and licenses for imports that were arriving in the country ( Brettell, & Hollifield, 2014) . The plan was successful for a short while, but at the end, it failed. The benefits that were arising from the policy were not equally disseminated throughout the classes.
The years that utilized the bracero program saw a tremendous increase in both legal and illegal immigrants from Mexico to the US. The program enabled the Mexican to enter the US legally with temporary contracts although a majority of them came into the US illegally. The Mexican immigrants were referred as the Mojados/Wetbacks because they risked their lives by swimming across the Rio Grande to make it America. They did this because they were not chosen to contract laborers and they were sure that there were plenty jobs in the US. The braceros and mojados had an intense competition of the available jobs in the US. In 1954, the American government instituted what is known as Operation setback whereby the mission was to repatriate over 1 million Mexican laborers. With the termination of the bracero program in 1964 undocumented Mexican immigrants increased.
Conclusion
The plights of the Mexican immigrants in Mexico and the United States have undeniably existed for many decades. They have had positive and negative effects on the American economy. The Mexican immigrants never lost hope of entering the US even when they were deported back to Mexico. The Mexican immigrants also suffered from discrimination from the Americans because they cited that they had stolen their jobs. Agricultural crisis and religious tensions are the major factors that contributed to the Dutch immigration to the US. The reason why they settled in Holland, Michigan is because of fertility. The Dutch and Mexicans immigrants in Michigan in the 19th century had both positive and negative impacts in the US. These two communities were driven by different motives of immigrants in the US. The effects of immigration on the labor markets of the natives are one of the most controversial topics.
References
Brettell, C. B., Hollifield, J. F. (2014). Migration theory: Talking across disciplines Routledge.
Gonzalez, G. G. (2015). Guest workers or colonized labor? Mexican labor migration to the United States Routledge.
Kramer, M. (2014). “Strike and the World Strikes with You, Work and You Work Alone” The Working-Class Urban Dutch and the Forces of their Faith (Doctoral dissertation, Leiden University)
Rubenstein, B. A., Ziewacz, L. E. (2014). Michigan: A History of the Great Lakes State John Wiley & Sons.
Ten Harmsel, L. (2002). Dutch in Michigan : MSU Press.
Van Faassen, M. (2015). Michael J. Douma, How Dutch Americans Stayed Dutch: An Historical Perspective on Ethnic Identities.
Walker, L. (2008). Discovering the Peoples of Michigan Reader
Zwart, D. (2016). Holland, Michigan: From Dutch Colony to Dynamic City.
