Physical, Social, and economic challenges have been primary sources of depression for many people globally. According to Li et al. (2016), depression is a leading cause of disability and has affected approximately 350 million worldwide. In the United States, depression has a lifetime prevalence of 18.6% and an annual prevalence of 8.1% (Chatters et al., 2018). Stressful experiences in life trigger depressive symptoms, post-traumatic stress disorder, and adjustment disorder (Lorenz et al., 2019). Depression leads to hopelessness and has been proven to increase the risk of suicide and violence significantly. Depression has a wide range of causes, including biological factors such as genetic risks and illnesses, and psychological factors including low resilience and poor mindfulness (Li et al., 2016). The increased prevalence of chronic diseases has increased depressive symptoms since the lifelong diseases adversely affect the physical and economic quality of life. Lucette et al. (2016) note that high costs of medication, rapid disease deterioration, and high mortality are primary contributors to depressive symptoms. Statistically, more than 50% of all adult Americans have at least one chronic disease, while about 60% of Americans above 65 years have multiple chronic diseases. Older people are at a higher risk of depression, considering their exposure to hardships and trauma. Jin et al. (2020) confirm that older people experience reduced quality of life, which significantly influences suicide and morbidity. In addition, depression is an outcome of academic pressure among university and college students and has accounted for the increase in drug and alcohol abuse as well as self-harm and suicide (Leung & Pong, 2021). Moreover, depression is caused by intolerance of uncertainty (IU) which refers to the tendency to evade uncertain circumstances (Howell et al., 2018). Negative thinking, anxiety, and fear of discomfort are behavioral components that trigger depression. Essentially, depression can be triggered by many factors in the modern world, and therefore, there is an urgent need for mitigation approaches.
Religiosity is proposed as a response strategy to the heightening levels of depression globally due to its influence on thoughts and emotions. Religiosity has been considered a remedy to depression due to an efficiency gap in antidepressant medications and treatments. Clinical medications and treatments have failed to prove effectiveness in countering moderate and severe depression. According to Li et al. (2016), the effectiveness of medications and treatments in addressing depressive symptoms is only 50%. Leung and Pong (2021) define spirituality as an idea or concept that is related to immateriality, spirit, principles, beliefs, visions, and dreams. Besides, spirituality involves the pursuit of what exactly is the purpose and meaning of life in religion. Spirituality can be described as a pursuit for the sacred and transcendent exceeding religious structures and organizations (Lucette et al., 2016). On the other hand, religion includes beliefs and organized practices that have long-established traditions. Religiousness and spirituality include religious attendance, prayers, religious living, religious hope, view of God, and involvement in religious activities (Lucette et al., 2016). Multiple pieces of research have concluded that spirituality and religiosity affect depression as they mitigate the severity of depressive symptoms.
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Religiosity and spirituality reduce depression by creating resilience, especially in older adults. Manning and Miles (2017) define resilience as a dynamic process that creates the ability to adapt to adversity and challenges. Resilience involves inner strength, competence, optimism, and flexibility to adverse experiences (Manning & Miles, 2017). Participation in religion has been demonstrated to positively have an effect on the psychological and physical health of individuals in their late and mid life as it counters anxiety, loneliness, depression, and substance abuse (Manning & Miles, 2017). Religion creates resilience by helping individuals to develop adaptive approaches to life. Religion interprets the meaning and purpose of life and offers explanations for life events. Religion teaches people to see the positive side of every adverse life event as they believe that all events are God's will and have an ultimate benefit. Manning and Miles (2017) argue that spirituality offers coping strategies such as high self-esteem and self-efficacy based on the belief that God is loving and that all events are pre-determined. In addition, religiosity enhances resilience by providing social and material support to enable people to manage adverse events. Manning and Miles (2017) affirm that spirituality includes shared experiences, collective responsibility, and communal practices that act as protective factors for members undergoing life traumas. Attending religious services creates social networks and contacts that are crucial resources in depressing moments. Research on the impacts of religion on depression and issues like social support by Manning & Miles (2017) found that individuals who attended religious services more had better quality lives and were more satisfied than those who attended religious services less frequently (Manning & Miles, 2017). The authors summarize the impacts of religiosity on depression by affirming that religion significantly improves how people understand resilience without considering whether it is exemplified as a process, trait, or outcome.
Religiosity acts as an alternative source of comfort and satisfaction for minority groups globally. A study involving African Americans found that their involvement in religion has created a support system that offers companionship, financial aid, advocacy against discrimination, and aid during pandemics (Chatters et al., 2018). African Americans would be expected to show high levels of stress and depression due to challenging experiences resulting from poverty and general discrimination. However, African Americans have lower lifetime and annual prevalence rates for depression of 10.4% and 5.9% compared to the general populations' 18.6% and 8.1% (Chatters et al., 2018). Explanations for this irony include African Americans' social support systems, family relationships, and religious practices. Church relationships among African Americans have been researched to provide emotional support that shields people from depressive symptoms and psychological distress. Therefore, research has shown that religious relationships are essential for minority groups that are more prone to depression due to social pressures. Interpersonal relationships within religious groups are critical predictors of mental and physical well-being. Essentially, religion steps in for the minority and mitigates depression by providing support that raises their standards of living.
Besides, religiosity resolves the psychological disorders resulting from intolerance of uncertainty (IU). Intolerance of uncertainty is a foundational issue in psychological and emotional disorders relating to depressive symptoms (Howell et al., 2018). Spirituality helps people improve their intolerance of uncertainties by creating a support system that helps individuals overcome life events. People with high intolerance of uncertainties show a higher likelihood of seeking religious help when depressed to get personal relief. Howell et al. (2018) argue that religious people are likely to perceive some of their life events as less aggressive since they hold the belief that their lives are under the control of a higher power. In addition, religiosity makes people believe that all events in life happen for a reason and that adverse experiences in life offer opportunities for spiritual growth (Howell et al., 2018). Therefore, religious people are less likely to experience stress for events beyond their control in life since they believe that a higher power comes to the aid of the weak and those in need. People are motivated to be religious since higher powers introduce external control and meaning to stressful experiences (Howell et al., 2018). Higher powers bridge the gap between uncertainty and discrepancy and personal control of events. Therefore, religion and spirituality lead to psychological well-being and low levels of psychiatric symptoms since they compensate for low control over life events. Howell et al. (2018) acknowledge that religiosity is a meaningful resource in resolving adversity since it guides cognition and behavior. However, the authors note that the degree of spirituality, including the frequency of religious services, prayers, and belief in a higher power, influenced the level of depression.
Religiosity mitigates depression by giving hope to individuals with diseases, especially chronic illnesses. According to Lucette et al. (2016), religious practices and spiritual beliefs of persons with chronic conditions create peace and positivity that helps them to adjust to challenging experiences. Lucette et al., (2016) arguments are based on a study on the effectiveness of religiosity and spirituality in giving hope, peace, and meaning to individuals with one or multiple chronic illnesses. The study confirmed that religiosity inversely influences depression in people with chronic conditions. Positive view and belief in God associated with less depression as the patients held on the hope that the events are spiritual and can change at any time. Religiosity proved effective in enhancing psychological well-being in patients with cancer and HIV as they developed meaning in life that diverts their focus from the illnesses. Lorenz et al. (2019) argue that religiosity and spirituality impact the mental health of people with chronic illnesses and consequently reduces depression.
Religiosity reduces depression in people working in stressful environments. A Nurses' Health Study (NHS) involving 121,701 nurses with age ranging from 30 to 55 years from the United States assessed the relationship between religious service attendances and depression levels from 1976 to 2016 (Li et al., 2016). The findings from the study indicated that nurses who often attended religious service more frequently had a reduced risk of being depressed. Low levels of stress and depression regardless of people working in taxing environments can be explained by the belief that every person has a responsibility and a higher power assigns all duties. Also, the study found out that depressed nurses had a lower chance of attending religious services compared to those without depression (Li et al., 2016). The study recommends that service attendance should be encouraged for religious people as a social approach to lower depression for people working in demanding environments. Religiosity avails opportunities for people to focus on immateriality for some time which minimizes life pressures and despair.
Religiosity is effective in addressing depression in university students and young people. As Leung and Pong (2021) note, university students are at a high risk of depression due to the transformation from adolescence to early adulthood. Leung’s and Pong’s opinions are backed by a study involving 500 Chinese university students from two universities in Hong Kong between 2018 and 2019. The study found that learners with reduced levels of spirituality had elevated levels of depression. The relationship between depression and spirituality was consistent for all aspects of spiritual well-being, including personal, communal, environmental, and transcendent (Leung & Pond, 2021). Students with low levels of spirituality were more anxious and stressed as they depicted confusion and lack of purpose in life. Spiritual health and well-being proved to be critical aspects of life that help individuals enjoy love, joy, peace, and nature (Leung & Pond, 2021). Spirituality facilitates the coherence between the mind and the body and leads to better physical and psychological health. According to Leung and Pong (2021), spirituality counters depression since it offers direction and hope for people with feelings of grief, emptiness, and frustrations.
Depression and frailty at old age can also be minimized through religious beliefs and practices. Jin et al. (2020) contend that older people are at a higher risk of frailty since they have limited mobility and few social interactions. As a result, older people develop mental disorders and depression from the rising feeling of vulnerability and overdependence. Lack of support significantly increases the risk of depression in older people considering the late-life challenges. Religiosity mitigates depression in older people by availing objective support, subjective support, and support utilization (Jin et al., 2020). Objective support for the aged includes social networks and material support that solve the challenges affecting older people. On the other hand, subjective support includes the feeling of knowing that support is available when need. Subjective support creates satisfaction for older people who believe that other believers and God are ready to offer help when needed (Jin et al., 2020). Lastly, support utilization includes the ability to source help externally. Religious people have better avenues to outsource help and therefore have lower anxiety and depression.
However, Haußman (2020) argues that depression can be influenced by religiosity and spirituality. Religiosity and spirituality can increase depressive symptoms when a believer's expectations are not met. People's religiosity can be altered by depression since depressive symptoms may make it impossible to attend religious services and practices. In such difficult times, the higher being may seem distant and religious people may feel deserted and become more. Haußman (2020) argues that religious people have burdening experiences when their confidence in faith and spirituality disappear, especially when depressed and lonely. Religious people used to support from other religious people and organizations are likely to be more depressed when the support is withdrawn. The motive behind spirituality and religiosity is a primary determinant in the level of depression in religious people before and after support. However, as Manning and Miles (2017) noted, religiosity builds emotional and psychological resilience that can sustain people even when religious support is withdrawn.
References
Chatters, L. M., Nguyen, A. W., Taylor, R. J., & Hope, M. O. (2018). Church and family support networks and depressive symptoms among African Americans: Findings from the National Survey of American Life. Journal of Community Psychology , 46 (4), 403–417. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21947
Haußmann, A. (2020). Depression and spirituality/religion. Spirituality, Mental Health, and Social Support , 56–90. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110674217-004
Howell, A. N., Carleton, R. N., Horswill, S. C., Parkerson, H. A., Weeks, J. W., & Asmundson, G. J. (2018). Intolerance of uncertainty moderates the relations among religiosity and motives for religion, depression, and social evaluation fears. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 75 (1), 95–115. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22691
Jin, Y., Si, H., Qiao, X., Tian, X., Liu, X., Xue, Q.-L., & Wang, C. (2020). Relationship between frailty and depression among community-dwelling older adults: The mediating and moderating role of social support. The Gerontologist , 60 (8), 1466–1475. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaa072
Leung, C. H., & Pong, H. K. (2021). Cross-sectional study of the relationship between the spiritual well-being and psychological health among university students. PLOS ONE , 16 (4). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249702
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Lorenz, L., Doherty, A., & Casey, P. (2019). The role of religion in buffering the impact of stressful life events on depressive symptoms in patients with depressive episodes or adjustment disorder. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 16 (7), 1238. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071238
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