Many children face various problems in learning certain behaviors or acquiring different types of knowledge. Teachers and parents may encounter problems when trying to cultivate certain behaviors for different children due to the variation in physical and psychological state. One of the major challenges among children is Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). This condition involves an individual engaging in many activities and failing to concentrate on one. A child struggling with ADHD will also get easily distracted thus failing to give attention to important stimuli. This condition has a significant effect on the learning process with many children failing to acquire certain behaviors or information on time. The significant prevalence of ADHD among children has made researchers and education stakeholders encourage better knowledge acquisition. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), around 9% of children in the US have been diagnosed with various stages of ADHD (ZOLER, 2010) . This data is a source of concern to various education stakeholders who would want to achieve particular learning goals. To counter the ADHD problem, experts in the education sector have proposed the use of various learning strategies that will ensure the appropriate information uptake. One of the major solutions to this problem is the reinforcement theory of motivation which proposes the use of external factors to stimulate learning in a child. This strategy involves the use of positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction of certain behaviors while encouraging a particular trait. In the use of positive reinforcement, the teacher or a parent can introduce a set of rewards to a child who completes a given task. The repetition of this process will help the child to develop a memory of a particular action and thus acquiring it as a behavior. However, it is important to understand the relevance of each reinforcement in promoting a particular behavior in a child suffering from ADHD. Factors like the time between reinforcement and the other, frequency, and the internal state of the individual greatly influence the acquisition of certain information to a child with ADHD.
Main Question -The question which the paper intends to answer is how teachers can use the reinforcement theory of motivation to increase information uptake by children with ADHD. To get the answer to this query, one needs to understand how reinforcement theory occurs and the procedures one follows to achieve the desired results. The paper also intends to answer the question about the relevance of social learning to a child suffering from ADHD.
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Background Information
Teachers and parents often experience difficulty while trying to incorporate certain behaviors in children suffering from ADHD. Common classroom interventions like the question-and-answer method have proved to be inefficient as a strategy of learning for children with this condition. This problem occurs due to lack of concentration, high irritability, and partaking in many actions at once among children with ADHD. Children with ADHD will show a slower information uptake as compared to those with normal growth. This variation prevents a teacher or a parent from achieving certain behavioral goals in all children. Challenges in behavior acquisition and learning among children with ADHD have made various experts formulate various strategies teachers and parents can use. One of the major learning interventions is the reinforcement theory of motivation which incorporates rewards and punishment for different behaviors. According to the theory’s proponents, a positive outcome must follow a desirable action to encourage its continuation. As the individual receives a reward for a good deed, the individual gets the motivation to repeat the action targeting to get more positive outcomes. This repetition creates a memory that can lead to a person adopting a particular behavior. Reinforcement can also include negative consequences and punishment. The first one involves removing undesirable consequences from an individual due to certain stimuli. This will help the person to continue doing a particular activity until the undesired outcome stops. On the other hand, punishment involves the introduction of an unpleasant consequence to discourage a person from continuing with a certain behavior. The understanding of those factors helps one to determine the appropriate learning intervention. The reinforcement theory of motivation plays a significant role in knowledge acquisition among children with ADHD. Even with the effect rewards and punishment will have on ADHD in general, educators who deal with students with this condition may face certain barriers. In a study by Russell et al. (2019), the researchers discovered that some parents provide unstable home environments, lack boundaries, and provide rewards inconsistently (p. 15). Therefore, even as these educators endeavor to get the best out of their students, such barriers as these will be expected.
Hypothesis- Reinforcement theory of motivation plays a significant role in the uptake of knowledge by pupils and thus a good learning method for students struggling with ADHD. The theory reveals that a person’s environment significantly influences how the individual behaves. Outcomes of each action determine its continuity or stoppage thus the need to introduce positive and negative reinforcement. The findings in the study support views reinforcement theory of motivation describe in an individual’s learning process. However, intervals between rewards, frequency, and the internal state of an individual affect the effectiveness of a particular reinforcement. Another important strategy teachers and parents can use to incorporate certain behaviors to children with ADHD is social learning theory. This theory involves a child observing other people’s actions to develop certain behaviors.
Literature Review
Theoretical Literature
Reinforce Theory of Motivation
ADHD is a condition that generally impairs a child’s concentration on various stimuli. Teachers and parents can note this problem by observing certain child’s behaviors. First, the pupil might fail to comply with particular instructions. In this case, the parent or the teacher must always watch or use force to ensure that that child completes the task given. Secondly, the pupil might show open defiance or aggression towards the teacher or parent. As the pupil relies heavily on the outside factors in adopting certain behaviors, it would be advisable to adopt external intervention strategies as a way of changing the child’s character. This problem occurs due to increased monitoring of the child by the guardian or the teacher. The learning process starts with conditioning the brain to make certain decisions when faced with different choices. The teacher or the parent needs to train the child with ADHD how to make particular decisions as to the first step in the learning process (Barkley, 2008, p. 20) . The feature is also common to children with ADHD as most of their activity occurs due to the expected reward. However, an individual may face challenges when storing information on different activities. One of the major problems a person may experience in memory formation is delayed discounting which is the inability to choose immediate but smaller rewards or a delayed and bigger outcome. A person with this condition takes longer to make decisions on the activity to take and thus delayed learning. Researchers have proved that children with ADHD face a slowed rate of discounting thus unable to decide on whether to continue with a certain behavior or not (Luman et al., 2010) . Pupils with this condition may also lack focus on the decision-making process leading to many choosing undesired activities. This condition shows the importance of external intervention in learning among children with ADHD. An individual will start by developing a working memory on a particular action. Working memory is a complex mental system that stores and manipulates information which enables an individual to undertake cognitive actions like learning, reasoning, and language acquisition ( Melby-Lervåg, & Hulme, 2013, p. 2) . This part of the brain also controls certain activities thus leading to a person choosing an activity over the other. BF Skinner first realized the power of reinforcement by undertaking various experiences with different animals and humans. Those studies proved to be effective in demonstrating how an external factor contributes to an individual adopting certain behavior while rejecting others. Skinners and his team developed four major components of reinforcement that contribute to a change in one’s conduct. They include positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction (Johansen et al., 2009, p. 67) . Neural representations play a significant role in the development of a particular behavior in a human being. The brain stores those memories in the neural networks that help in motor response, perception, and different nerves that predict the outcome of each action. By offering positive and negative reinforcement or punishment, a person creates a certain memory that makes the child predict what will occur after a particular action. First, positive reinforcement involves the introduction of desirable consequences to encourage an individual to continue with a specific activity. A person using this strategy will identify certain items or actions which create good memory in the child’s brain. When they follow a particular action done by the subject, he/she connects the two through neural receptors thus able to associate one with the other in the future. This strategy plays a significant role in encouraging certain behaviors among children suffering from ADHD. On the other hand, negative reinforcement is the removal of undesirable conditions to encourage an individual to continue with a certain action. Through this goal, the child memorizes certain traits and thus developing a particular behavior.
Another effective reinforcement to use when modelling the behaviors of a child is the token economy. Through this method, the teacher or a parent rewards the child with particular items for certain behavior. Those tokens accumulate to a specific amount and are then exchanged with a bigger reward. A child with ADHD associates each token with a particular task and thus developing a behavior. The teacher or a parent needs to divide a day into different periods and assign the child tasks. The child then receives a token after the completion of each activity.
A child struggling with ADHD will show little knowledge absorption thus requiring external reinforcement to learn. Various researchers have also found that a child with this condition has low cognitive performance and thus unable to identify certain external cues. A teacher handling such a student might find it hard to make the learner concentrate on one activity. However, the introduction of specific rewards steadily creates a memorable experience and thus enabling the child to link those events or objects to a particular action while disregarding others.
Social Learning Theory
Social learning involves imitating or observing another person’s behavior. Albert Bandura developed this theory by stating that learning is a cognitive process that depends on what an individual sees other people doing. Teachers and parents can use social learning theory in the absence of reinforcement to instill some behaviors in a child struggling with ADHD. This learning intervention involves three main concepts. First, many people learn by observing the actions or patterns of those surrounding them. In this case, a person will look at what another individual (model) does and later try to imitate those actions. Three main models influence the behavior of another person. First, the child can use a live model that involves a human being demonstrating a particular behavior (Fosco et al., 2017, p. 74) . The child’s visual nerves record this activity in the cognitive part of the brain before reenacting it later. Therefore, teachers and parents must act as role models to children with ADHD by portraying positive behaviors in the former’s presence. Secondly, the child can use symbolic models like books, films, and television models to learn certain behaviors. By observing words and images in those materials, the child visualizes those activities and thus developing the portrayed behavior. Lastly, observation can involve the issuance of verbal instructions to a child on how to perform a certain activity. The second concept of social learning theory states the importance of the mental wellbeing of a child acquiring particular knowledge or behavior. Bandura stated that reinforcement does not only come from external forces but also internal motivation like the sense of accomplishment, satisfaction, and pride. Lastly, Bandura stated that observation of certain behavior does not necessarily lead to learning. Therefore, teachers and parents need to observe the actions of a child with ADHD to determine the effectiveness of a particular behavior.
Applied Literature
To ascertain this claim, the research began by examining the effect motivation has on the learning process. Researchers started by introducing various incentives to children with ADHD and those with typical growth. There was a prediction that the former will exhibit higher improvement in behavior change as compared to the latter. The research team selected children aged between 9 to 12 years as the main respondents (Bubnik et al., 2015, pp. 32-60) . Those with ADHD were 24 in total while those without were 32. To get participants, the research team relied on various departments for the accuracy and authenticity of the data collected. First, clinicians referred children with ADHD by providing information to the study group about the extent of their condition. This strategy would help the group to increase the accuracy of the study as health care professionals had well-tested information about those participants. There was also uniformity in the information acquired enabling researchers to identify incentives that could work on all participants. Participants with ADHD were also to meet the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria. Secondly, the study group relied on schools, pediatricians’ offices, and local periodicals to get participants with normal growth. The team used this strategy as the group did not require uniform characteristics in selection.
The Child and Youth Institutional Review Board approved the procedure the research group used to undertake this study. Various incentives were introduced to children with and without ADHD at the same time. A day before testing could begin, children were given stimulant medication to excite certain brain receptors. In the first stage of testing, the research team used then familiarized participants with particular tasks by giving them instructions to follow in performing each activity without introducing any incentive. The results showed that only 20% of children with ADHD undertook the given task while those with normal growth were 65%. The second stage occurred after 2 weeks and involved giving the participants the same task and involving incentives for each (Alsop et al., 2016) . Fifty percent of children with ADHD undertook the task while those with normal growth were 80%. Those results showed that children with this condition were more likely to depend on external stimulants to learn as compared to those having normal growth. Therefore, it was evident that reinforcement played a significant role in shaping a child’s behavior. Those findings collaborated with the hypothesis which stated the importance of external motivation in learning among children with ADHD.
The teacher or parent can also use the token economy to instil a certain behavior in a child with ADHD. Various studies have proved the effectiveness of this method by showing a significant increase in knowledge acquisition when reinforcement is broken into tokens. To ascertain this theory, researchers included 17 participants with an average age of 3 years (Filcheck et al., 2004) . Children were given different tasks like learning letters, numbers, shapes and singing songs. Each child received a wooden disk as a reward after the task completion in different levels. Researchers used various measuring systems like School Observation Coding System (SOCS) and Teacher Behavior Coding System (TBCS). The first measure showed a 40% decrease in the adoption of good behavior while the second one showed a 68% improvement in the overall conduct. The token economy produced a significant motivation for the participants. A promise for a better reward encouraged participants to put more effort into completing tasks given. An achievement in each stage made the child believe that getting the final prize was possible. The successive tokens acted as reinforcement by making the child master certain procedures in performing a particular task. Having keenly observed those steps allowed the child to memorize the information gained and thus developing a behavior. Those results collaborated with the hypothesis which stressed the importance of reinforcement in learning among children with ADHD.
There are various conditions that a teacher or a parent must fulfil when using a particular reinforcement on a child struggling with ADHD. First, the time between one reinforcement and the other should be at close range. This closeness allows the child to associate one action with the other and thus the ability to develop a particular behavior (Hupp et al., 2002) . The study has shown that children with ADHD were more likely to partake in a particular character when reinforcement is done at a successive rate. To ascertain this claim, researchers undertook tests on the success of behavior development with reinforcements having different timeframes. The study group selected 30 children aged 8 to 12 years as participants. First, the group introduced particular tasks within two days. On the first day of the test, only 20% of children could complete the task given. After one week, the figure had risen to 60% showing a bigger rise in the completion ability as compared to when the study took two weeks. Those results show how a child with ADHD will not acquire the required behavior when the time from one reinforcement to the next is long. This condition occurs due to the weaker neural receptors children with ADHD have as compared to those with normal development (Pickett, 2016) . As time progresses, the memory formed becomes weak and thus leads to loss of certain information about a particular activity. Therefore, it was evident that children with ADHD had weaker memory formation as compared to those with normal growth and thus the need to minimize the interval between one reinforcement and the other.
The second consideration in using reinforcement to influence learning among children with ADHD is the frequency of the stimulus. A child with this condition easily loses concentration on a particular activity and thus the need for increased reinforcement. This situation occurs due to the increased activity of the neural receptors. Those nerves try to acquire a lot of information leading to the loss of memory for certain activities. Researchers have proved this theory by undertaking a study on children with ADHD and introducing reinforcement on different activities. The study involved 50 children with ADHD divided into two equal groups and each involving rewards in different frequencies (Luman et al, 2011) . Participants had to receive particular assignments for a week as the tests were done. Group A (n=25) received a reward up to the third day but they had to continue with the tasks for a whole week. The other batch undertook similar tasks with the motivation continuing for the entire duration of the test. After one week, Group A showed an improvement of 12% while the second one indicated a 30% increase in the behavioral change. The reason for the variation in results occurred due to the frequency of the reinforcement. The group that received a reward for seven days had a higher chance in the learning process than that with little exposure to external motivation. Therefore, an external motivation will likely not achieve its objectives in shaping the child’s behavior. The results show the importance of having the appropriate number of rewards as stimulants for the adoption of a particular behavior. Having few rewards might make the child with ADHD lose the memory of a specific action and thus fail to permanently acquire a certain behavior.
Various studies have proved the effectiveness of social learning theory in behavior formation among children with ADHD. The first study was intended to give an illustration of how social learning theory enhances knowledge acquisition. One of the major sources of social learning is by observing peer groups. Researchers used the survey study to analyze students’ belief in the use of social learning theory as a major form of acquiring language skills (Barkley, 2008). The group formulated 15 questions and selected 100 students as correspondents of this study. The units for these questions ranged from (1) Strongly Agree, (2) Strongly Agree, (3) Neutral, (4) Disagree, and (5) Strongly Disagree. Results showed that 34% of the correspondents prefer learning English skills through their peers.
Secondly, social learning theory stimulates the theory of mind which is essential in behavior formation. Theory of mind is a skill that gives a person the ability to think about their mental state. A child observes what other people are doing before forming a particular mental judgment. A child with ADHD may lack independent thinking and thus depending on external cognitive factors (Lavigne et al., 2020, p. 33) . To ascertain this principle, researchers selected 44 students with ADHD and aged between 6 and 12. The method involved administering intelligence tests on participants using neural psychological batteries. A theory of mind test was performed on the participants to check how each student responded to various external factors. The results showed a significant improvement (50%) in the theory of mind among children with ADHD. Those results significantly collaborated with the hypothesis which stated the importance of social learning theory in knowledge acquisition. Therefore, children with ADHD observe other people’s actions and form a significant memory about certain behaviors.
Discussion
The study revealed the significant role reinforcement theory of motivation played in influencing the learning and behavior of a child struggling with ADHD. According to researchers, an individual with this condition will have little concentration on various external stimuli and thus having little information uptake. A child with ADHD experiences delayed discounting where he/she is unable to choose between fast but smaller rewards or late but a larger benefit for a particular activity. This inability to select a particular consequence among two choices makes the pupil have a slowed uptake of information. Therefore, a child with ADHD has to rely significantly on external factors to acquire certain behaviors. From the study researchers undertook, children with ADHD had a higher improvement in the learning process when reinforcement was introduced. However, there was a need to carefully analyze factors that affect the effectiveness of particular reinforcements on the learning process among children with this condition (De Meyer et al., 2019, pp. 5-11) . First, the time between one reinforcement to the other determines the level of success of any external stimulus to the learning process of children suffering from ADHD. The shorter the interval between two rewards, the higher the improvement in the knowledge among members of this group. When the reward stops before a given timeframe, the child may lose concentration on a particular activity and thus resulting in a relapse of the information gained. With their weak neural receptors, children with ADHD will lose the memory of a particular activity and thus unable to maintain particular conduct. Therefore, teachers and parents need to continue motivating children with various external stimuli until they acquire the required behavior. Lastly, the reinforcement frequency plays a significant role in the learning process among children with ADHD. Various researches have revealed that as an individual becomes exposed to certain external stimuli, he/she develops a stronger memory towards those factors and thus the development of a particular behavior. Children with ADHD need more reinforcement frequency as compared to those with normal growth. This strategy helps in the development of stronger memory which allows more information uptake.
The findings of this study provide important information to different stakeholders on how to handle children with ADHD. First, the study provides the necessary guidelines for teachers to apply in increasing knowledge acquisition by this group. Tutors need to introduce various forms of motivation to children with ADHD to make them acquire certain behaviors. Those motivations include praising the child in front of the class and giving delicacies (Fosco et al., 2017) . A pupil will memorize this experience with a particular action and get motivated to repeat it. This strategy can help the teacher reduce the variation between children with ADHD and those having normal development. The second beneficiaries of this study are parents who encounter difficulty in controlling children with ADHD. A guardian may unsuccessfully try to instill certain behavior in a child due to inattentiveness and hyperactivity (Pickett, 2016, p. 66) . To increase the attention of the child, a parent needs to select particular actions and introduce the reward for each. The parent can tame the child’s behavior as the latter develops a memory for a particular activity. However, there was a need to consider the nature of reinforcement to achieve the learning objective. The parent should select a motivation that elicits a significant interest from the child. Such reinforcement will make the child develop a memory for a specific activity and thus the adoption of certain behavior.
Recommendations
There are various shortcomings the study needs to address in making the data more accurate in depicting the influence the reinforcement theory of motivation has on learning processes among children with ADHD. First, the research team needs to increase the number of participants for this study to improve on the scope of the data collected. Having many children with ADHD will enable researchers to cater to other needs participants might have when learning certain behaviors. This strategy will allow the creation of different categories of participants and thus varying forms of reinforcement. Secondly, the study should consider the internal factors that a child with ADHD might be undergoing when selecting a particular behavior and leaving another. Those elements include the emotional state and physical health of each participant. Therefore, such a person could not offer better results as those factors could limit the influence reinforcement has on the learning process for children with ADHD (Cockburn & Holroyd, 2010) . Lastly, the research team should consider the nature of various reinforcements and how each affects knowledge acquisition in children with ADHD. People have a different perception of various external factors and thus the variation in the way they respond to each. One reinforcement may elicit significant neural action with another having negligible effect. Research may use the latter and fail to gather accurate data on the effect of reinforcement in behavior change among children with ADHD.
Conclusion
The reinforcement theory of motivation plays a significant role in influencing behavior change and the learning process among children with ADHD. The research has shown that members of this group have many characteristics that prevent proper knowledge acquisition. Those challenges include poor concentration, easy distraction, and restlessness. A child with ADHD also has weak neural receptors and thus unable to retain information about a particular task for long. Therefore, the individual lacks independence in decision-making and thus depending on external factors to learn a certain behavior (Casagrande et al., 2012) . Review articles provide strong evidence in support of how reinforcement influences the learning process among children with ADHD. Results from those materials show that when researchers introduce various motivations, children with this condition tend to produce higher improvement in knowledge acquisition as compared to those with normal development.
Assessment
The research on the effect of reinforcement theory of motivation on children with ADHD provided an insight into the challenges teachers and parents face in shaping the child’s behavior. I was able to analyze the information provided to develop an in-depth understanding of this principle and how it works. The part that worked significantly for me in this study was the analysis of the problem and the appropriate solution. In this section, I delivered detailed information about the two variables leading to a better understanding of their relationship. This strategy helped me to stick to the main topic throughout the paper.
Article reviews were useful as they provided various components for the completion of the paper. I used the data, methodology, and rationale for each material to develop concrete evidence of how reinforcement allows children with ADHD to develop certain behaviors or acquire a particular knowledge. Those articles gave a clear methodology that one could use in future researches. On the other hand, the data provided gave reliable and tested figures and thus increasing the paper’s authenticity. There is a need to involve various external resources when undertaking any research. Such resources help an individual gather enough information on a specific topic.
References
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