Incarceration affects the lives of families with it having ties to poverty, disease and poor quality of life. The increase in incarceration rates is evident following a 6.5% annual increase in the prison population, (Peniston, 2006). The disappointing aspect about this is that majority of the incarcerations center on drug crimes. With the increase in prison population, more children grow up without their parents. Numerous studies document children to experience effects such as poor peer relations, anxiety, grief, social isolation, developmental regression, delinquency and other forms of problem behavior. A pressing issue in the high rates of incarceration as explained by Lewis (2015) is the accompanying increase of African Americans within the system. They make up less than 6% of the U.S. Population, yet they now make up 39% of the adult male prison population. Incarceration presents detrimental effects to the family and society with it introducing the concept of secondary prisonization. Concerning the concept, family members suffer from material, emotional and social imprisonment. In a material sense, families have to step up financially to cover the costs of the incarcerated parent. This could entail legal fees, provision of items during visiting hours and acquiring of debt. Substance abuse users often leave behind large debts, borrowed in an attempt to feed their addiction. Incarcerated parents especially fathers leave their families in dire conditions, unable to support themselves. This explains the rising link between poverty and incarceration. From an emotional standpoint, children are likely to experience trauma following the loss of a parent and have a difficult time processing the event. They experience shame and guilt to some extent, with them fearing to share the experience about the event following the stigma attached to the event. They perceive that other children would not want to play with them and fear labeling as coming from a criminal family. This presents significant self-esteem concerns for the child, with children from such backgrounds struggling with low self-esteem. Currently, there are limited studies that could children’s adaptation to the process, with most of them pointing out the negative aspects associated with the event. Socially, children are likely to isolate from their peers following the feelings of shame and guilt associated with having an incarcerated parent. The incarceration presents a risk factor for future involvement in crime and violent acts. Additionally, family dynamics change with the spouse taking up multiple roles and the family having to readjust its finances (Lewis 2015).
An element fueling an increase in prison population is mass incarceration. According to Peniston (2006), the system works by concentrating young, minority men in poor communities of color into the prison system. The individuals may be in prison due to petty crimes such as possession of an illegal substance. Unfortunately, the system of incarceration is a product of a rigid criminal justice system aimed at punishing criminal behavior solely by incarceration. The notion of mass incarceration brings into question the aspect of the war against drugs. As is, incarceration appears to be the only way to manage the condition, yet it is becoming a public health concern. With individuals serving time for petty crime, this overwhelms the prison system into making available its services that accounts to the overcrowding in prisons. According to Bobo and Thompson (2010), the increase in African Americans within the prison system centers on the unequal protection of the law and enforcement. In unequal protection, there is a routine of minimal protection for African Americans by the police and unequal enforcement is discriminatory treatment relating to crime. The discriminatory treatment in particular, explains the emergence of social movement groups such as Black Lives Matter. The movement aims to create awareness on the impending brutality African Americans experience at the hands of the police. Another reason accounting for the increase in incarceration is poverty, unemployment and youth involvement in gang related crime. Mass incarceration is disadvantageous as it restricts formation of families and strains social networks. This follows that it takes individuals away from their homes, denying them of the opportunity to contribute towards the growth of the community. With incarceration limiting the opportunity for individuals to improve themselves, the probability of having repeat offenders is apparent.
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A factor that affects parental incarceration is gender. On average, there are about 1 million fathers behind bars, (Peniston, 2006).As Lewis (2015), highlights children of incarcerated fathers participate in the criminal justice system process from sentencing to visitation. Each aspect of the process presents significant levels of difficulty for the child. As the child matures to become an adult, there is still underlying resentment towards the inability of the father to abide by the law. Children struggle forgiving their parents as they grow in the understanding that their parents had a choice to comply with the law. In households with incarceration from a substance abuse crime, the implications are far reaching, as there is a probability that the parent was an abuser. Some of the children are too young to understand the process and with time develop underlying feelings of confusion, anger and fear. Children go through a grieving process, passing the various stages of grief. According to Carther and McCarthy (2010), they experience material hardship, both during and after the prison term. Unfortunately, among African American households, children face the risk of homelessness especially where the primary caregiver is a single parent. Despite the numerous disadvantages associated with incarceration, in some instances it is beneficial for children going through abuse. Incarceration of the abusive parent signals an end of the abuse. Regardless, such a pattern carries dysfunctional aspects for the child in that the abuse changes their approach to becoming fully functioning adults.
To understand the causes of incarceration, it is essential to know the risk factors. Mukku (2012), points out prior incarceration, younger age, racial ethnic minority groups such as Hispanics and African Americans, and substance abuse disorder. Regarding prior incarceration, men with a history of incarceration experience discrimination for being convicted felons. As a result, they struggle with getting jobs following that individuals are reluctant to hire. The receding effects of unemployment involve being prone to violence and substance abuse. With age, adolescent males from impoverished backgrounds are likely to engage in drug related crime. Drug dealing is a crime often having ties to adolescents and young adults, (Mukku, 2012).
History of the Problem
The history of incarceration in the U.S. population spans over 400 years with the prison population rapidly increasing. Lewis (2015), points out an increase in sentencing rates and the length of terms regarding drug related crimes. A guiding principle for the increase in prison population draws support from the concept of mass incarceration. As highlighted by Lewis (2015), the Bureau of Justice pointed out in 2013 that 51% of all federal prisoners received sentencing for drug offences. African Americans incarcerated at higher rates across all age groups. For decades as pointed out by Lewis (2015), America has had a stable prison population. The situation began to change in the 1960s and 70s, a period that recorded a predominant increase in crime. As a result, more drug penalties, implementation of three strike laws and policies that foster sentencing of offenders.
The cost of incarcerating individuals charged with substance related crimes continues to increase, (Mukku, 2012). Prison costs continue to double with the offenders contributing to the growing prison populations. An interesting aspect to note is that majority of these individuals struggle with substance abuse disorders. Data from Mukku (2012) reveals alcohol as the commonly abused drug followed by marijuana, stimulants and cocaine. With the abuse of drugs, individuals struggle with impaired judgment. The link between drug use and crime is one that is currently under research. Mukku (2012) highlights the influence of previous studies in establishing a direct correlation between substance abuse and criminal activity among young people. Studies reveal that violent acts encompass the involvement of drug use. During the execution of violent acts such as robbery, individuals lack awareness of the effect of their actions on others. Individuals with a substance abuse result to stealing to manage their behavior. Other risk factors influencing substance abuse disorder include poverty, peers, and family background. With poverty, individuals involve themselves in petty drug crimes such as peddling to meet their basic needs. Such individuals are likely to have ties to drug related crimes. To mitigate the negative effects from cascading to the children, it is essential to raise awareness on the implication of substance abuse. There should also be a focus from the criminal justice on reducing the penalties on drug related crime. Communities have a responsibility to ensure that they support children whose parents are under incarceration. Through the availability of role models to help children navigate through the process, they become adaptable members of society. They also are unlikely to withdraw from society.
Effect of the Problem on Society and Family
It is essential to study the effects of incarceration on the society and the family as they directly affect children. Within the context of the family, bearing that it is the primary environment responsible for providing support and protection from impending harm, (Wright and Seymour, 2015). One of the significant changes relates to the family structure. In family dynamics, the family is at a state of equilibrium and one change to the family such as incarceration of a member impairs the entire system. With one member of the family absent, the other has to take on dual responsibilities to foster optimal functioning of the family. Where the father is the caregiver of the home, incarceration causes stress to the mother owing to limited financial capability. The absence of the father figure negatively affects children, as they need reassurance and support from both parents. Prison creates the notion that children are unable to get a hold of their parent. The environment in itself is not conducive with children expressing fear and concern over visiting prison. Where the mother is the primary caregiver and the custodial parent, her incarceration has a greater effect on the children, (Wright and Seymour, 2015). Women prisons have flexible systems that allow prisoners to meet with their children, with mothers playing an important role in the child’s development, absence of the mother may result in attachment issues spanning to adulthood. The chain of custody in this case shifts to the extended family, which equally places a strain on financial resources. The whole family may generally go through emotional upheaval following the shame, guilt, and pain of dealing with the event. Where the extended family is unable to take care of the child, they move to the foster care systems that present challenges. The child may not adapt well to the environment and after the incarcerated returns home, restructuring the family dynamics may prove to be a challenge.
With children, one of the significant issues that affect them is behavior problems and trauma. The initial experience of separation from the parent is a risk factor for behavioral problems, (Peniston, 2006). Prior to incarceration, children who see their parents arrested develop a form of trauma that carries on to adulthood. During this time, the child perceives the event as terrifying and hostile. An interesting aspect of the parent-child relationships is that incarceration affects the attachment relationship. With the relationship broken, the child becomes susceptible to abuse, neglect, aggression and delinquency.
On a societal aspect, incarceration encourages poverty. This follows that individuals who can contribute to the advancement of society, are unable to provide their input. As active social beings, they cannot participate in the socialization process that limits their ability to adjust favorably in society. It equally increases the crime rate as explained by Wright and Seymour (2015); incarcerated individuals often come from backgrounds where the crime rates are high.
Multicultural Aspect of the Issue
With incarceration, the high rates are apparent in minority ethnic groups. According to Mauer (2011), data shows that African Americans are likely to be victims of violent crime. From a theoretical perspective, various factors affect the increase in incarceration of minority groups in the United States. These might include the relative degree of involvement in crime, disparate law enforcement practices, sentencing and parole policies and practices, and biased decision making. For example, African American and Hispanic drivers are more likely to be stopped while on the road as opposed to white drivers. The racial disparity is clear and complicated at the same time. It violates the very essence of justice that ought to be free and impartial. From aspects involving the extension of sentences and provision of life sentences without the chance of parole, brings to question the authenticity of the system itself. This places an unwanted strain on prison resources. With the shift towards prison reforms and move towards privatization of the prison system, the reforms have to cut across the entire system from arrest to sentencing. Sociological elements accounting for the racial disparity has ties to socioeconomic disadvantage, poverty rates for African American are proportionately higher as opposed to those of Whites, (Mauer, 2011). An early-life disadvantage is another aspect with African American youth from impoverished backgrounds lacking the tools and resources such as education, to secure employment. The impoverished backgrounds they come from, are distinctive in gang related activity hat predisposes them to be pr of crime. Teenagers as young as 13 years find themselves in gangs and withdrawal from such gangs carries serious consequences. The incarceration on racial grounds tries to find justification from ending the war against drugs. The goal should aim towards creating a system that encourages employment and opportunities for young people so that they are proactive in changing society. There should be an evaluation of the mandatory minimum sentences. They are responsible for the mass incarceration of African Americans.
Treatment Options
The provision of drug abuse treatment to incarcerated individuals is an integral aspect of rehabilitation within the criminal justice system. As part of institution management, part of ensuring that the prison system has a system of order and provides change to individuals is by making such treatment services available. For example, incarcerated individuals may engage in criminal behavior within the prison to encourage their maladaptive behavior. Currently, the focus is on the war on drugs is incarcerating individuals who are in possession of illegal substances but not treating them. While law is necessary to promote social order, drug addiction presents a unique challenge in that it affects public policy and health. Tims and Leukefield (1992) point out drug dependence as chronic with recovery being a continuous process. The models of treatment in place should have in mind interventions that encourage continuing treatment, after incarcerated individuals leave prison. For treatment programs to be successful, they should have continuing organizational support and clear objectives that fit into an evaluation design. Drug abuse treatments need a systematic approach. There should be effective programs that need development and refinement. Central to the process of behavior modification, there should be a strong focus on having a reliable system of assessment. Substance abuse incarcerated individuals are often abusers of more than one drug. By having a comprehensive assessment approach, it is possible to identify the design of the intervention programs. After assessment, planning of treatment is the next step. In this case, the professional should have in mind the model or theoretical approaches they will rely on to facilitate treatment. In drug abuse treatment, practitioners often incline to cognitive behavioral approach. Central to treatment, is ensuring that individuals receive quality treatment, despite them being prisoners. To encourage the continuation of treatment after prison, there is need to liaise with therapeutic communities that will help individuals continue with treatment.
An effective tool that is useful in the treatment process is the use of group counseling. It is common within the prison system, as it provides prisoners with the social support needed to overcome their addiction. Through such groups, individuals build accountability and steer each other towards change. Rehabilitation in the very sense of the word is not solely on punishing individuals for their crime, it offers an opportunity to correct behavior so that individuals retreat to society as fully functioning members of society. By having comprehensive treatment centers, the perception of the prison system as an industrial complex shifts as it becomes one capable of fostering behavior modification.
Substance abuse incarceration is progressively increasing over the years owing to the concept of mass incarceration. As is, the system suffers from racial injustice particularly evidenced through the increased incarceration of African American males and Hispanics. Some of the reasons for this include issues in enforcement, and underlying racial biases. The increase in incarceration, is taking away fathers from their homes, leaving children to experience devastating effects owing to being in prison. More often than not, children of incarcerated parents struggle with emotional issues and have a predisposition to problem behavior. With other family members suffering the effects through increased poverty and alterations in the family structure, the incarceration produces ripple effects.
References
Bobo, L. and Thompson, V. Racialized Mass Incarceration: Poverty, Prejudice, and Punishment. Harvard University.
Carter, A., & McCarthy, B. (2015). Reducing the Effects of Incarceration on Children and Families. Policy Brief , 3 .
Leukefeld, C. G., & Tims, F. R. (1993). Drug abuse treatment in prisons and jails. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment , 10 (1), 77-84.
Mauer, M. (2011). Addressing racial disparities in incarceration. The Prison Journal , 91 (3_suppl), 87S-101S.
Mukku, V. K., Benson, T. G., Alam, F., Richie, W. D., & Bailey, R. K. (2012). Overview of substance use disorders and incarceration of African American males. Frontiers in psychiatry , 3 .
Wright and Seymour. (2015). Effects of Parental Incarceration on Children and Families. Purdue University.
