Erich Eromm's most significant contribution to the science of man and psychoanalysis was the development of the existential humanism theory. The existential theory was a blend of the ideas of both Freud and Marx, creating a compromise between the Freudian concept of the unconscious in influencing personality, and Marxist beliefs of how the economic systems affect the development of an individual, and the role of social factors in determining personality development. This paper examines Erich Fromm existential theory of personality outlining his significant theoretical contribution, including his ideas about personality and how his history contributed to his works. In considering his formulations of the existential theory, we focus how his actions of personality apply to the contemporary society.
Background
Erich Fromm was born in Frankfurt, Germany in 1900 as the only child of Orthodox Jewish parents. He studied Talmund and law but eventually went University of Frankfurt and Heidelberg where he studied sociology and psychology. In 1922, Fromm received his Ph.D. in sociology and began his career as a psychotherapist. He later joined the University of Munich where he trained in psychoanalysis and became an analyst under Sachs& Reik. In 1925, he began his practice and was associated with the influential Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt. In 134, Fromm immigrated to the United States, where he started psychoanalytic training in New York. In New York, he became a member of the American Psychoanalytic Association together with Karen Horney whom she had known back in Germany. In 1942, he published the book Escape from Freedom that focussed on analyzing destructive behavior in human beings, and Man for Himself that outlined various personality theories and characters. He also founded the William Alanson White Institute of Psychiatry, psychoanalysis, and psychology. In 1950, Fromm moved to Mexico, where he lived for more than 24 years researching analytic social theories and psychology. In 1966, he suffered a heart attack in his home in Switzerland.
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Several features of Fromm’s life played an essential role in the development of his existential theory of personality. One, Fromm was born from an orthodox Jewish family in Germany ( Winston, 2016) . His family believed in the Talmudic traditions that focused mainly on the teachings of rabbis and the Talmudic scholars ( Winston, 2016). In fact, his great-grandfather was a leader of the Frankfurt Jewish community. His father later departed from the Talmudic traditions and became a renewed wine seller in Frankfurt ( Winston, 2016) . His father departure from the Talmudic traditions made him more alienated from his father, continually describing him as a pathological anxious man who had no positive impact in his education and life. Fromm felt that his home environment was suffocating, thus escaping to his relatives who kept the distinguished tradition of education and leadership. Fromm's theoretical works were, therefore, a form of therapy as he tried to investigate the effects of an alienating and potentially destructive family and society on self ( Rasmussen & Salhani, 2008) .
Fromm was interested in learning psychoanalysis, culture and societal system. As a practicing analyst, trained at the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute, Fromm worked as a classic Freudian psychoanalyst in his first eight years of practice ( Durkin, 2016) . He evaluated Freud's theories of psychoanalysis and criticized them for being outdated and narrow in their application and conceptualization. He, therefore, sought to liberate Freud ideas from the confines of libido theory to another context such as cultural and historical perspectives ( Durkin, 2016) . Fromm suggested that one’s very nature is a product of the interaction between the individual and their cultural setting. He emphasized that the way were today as is a result of the achievement of the human history. However, we are also able to influence the traditions we were brought up with. In the modern society, particularly, individuality has alienated individuals from the same social structure that is integral ( Durkin, 2016) . Consequently, while this kind of freedom from social ties is necessary, it has also created psychological problems as individuals are alienated from conditions that are important for growth and development. Fromm further posits that to reduce the sense of isolation and aloneness, the society may adopt mechanisms of escape that may be detrimental to their freedom ( Durkin, 2016). According to Fromm, this mechanism may include authoritarianism, destructiveness, and conformity. Authoritarianism entails individuals giving up their independence to gain a strength their lack. Destructiveness, on the other hand, aims at doing away with people or things that are causing anxiety. Social conformity is surrendering one’s individuality and integrity to meet their demands. According to Fromm, all these mechanisms played a critical role in the rise of Fascism in Europe and destructive personalities such as Adolf Hitler ( Winston, 2016).
According to Fromm (2014) to develop an integrated personality, an individual must be reunited with other aspects of the society such as ethics, economics, and philosophy. To Fromm, though democracy and individuality help in liberating people, it is only a promise of freedom. Thus, individuals must thrive in reuniting with others. Fromm did not entirely criticize everything in Freud but considered some aspects to be correct in developing the personality. Some of the concepts included: the notion of the conflict between the Id, Ego, and Superego in developing personality and the unconscious mind ( Rasmussen & Salhani, 2008) .
Fromm existential theory was also influenced by the social and political works of Karl Marx. Fromm noticed that Marx works drew heavily on the ideas of social structure within a German community. He, therefore, believed that apart from an individual having a particular character, there is a social character. According to Fromm (2014), people also acquire other personalities by relating to others in the society. Fromm noticed the absence of a biological level of explanation in Marxist theory. In his later works, he attempted to offer a natural explanation of the innate needs of a man.
Evaluation
Fromm’s existential theory of personality is still relevant in the world today. In his book Man for Himself, he outlines five types of character that are found in the world today, each located on the biophilia axis. According to Fromm, the personality of individuals are categorized according to how they are productive or non-productive they are. Besides, they are classified regarding what the socialization process helps them achieve such as love. Lastly, each type of personality is categorized by how an individual can assimilate the learned things with the world in general.
Fromm divided the five personality type according to the biophilia axis, with one of the personalities in the (productive kind) and the rest under the non-productive orientation (hoarding type, open type, marketing type and the exploitative type). People with the receptive personality believe that they have nothing positive about themselves ( Silver, 2017) . They think that the only way they can relate to the world and survive is by receiving love and material things ( Silver, 2017). The socialization process is characterized by symbiosis, a relationship of loyalty and dependence. Regardless of their negative attributes, people with a receptive personality are very modest and charming ( Silver, 2017) . In the world today, this personality type is very prevalent characterized by symbiotic behavior, where individuals do not want to engage in productive activities but want to become highly dependent on others to achieve their goals ( Silver, 2017) . This forces them to be submissive for them to continue receiving material things.
The exploitative personality is also relevant in the society today but is quite similar to the receptive personality. Just like the warm personality, individuals in this personality believe that they can only derive happiness by acquiring material ( Silver, 2017) . They think they have nothing to offer to the world. While the receptive personality earns what they need by either becoming loyal or being submissive, the exploitative personality believes in using force. They spend a lot of time and resources strategizing on how to acquire things forcibly from people ( Silver, 2017) . Their socialization process is similar to the receptive type, symbiosis. However, the exploitative personality is characterized by authoritarianism, sadism, aggression, and arrogance. However, on the positive side, they are very creative and have high confidence ( Silver, 2017) .
The hoarding personality is entirely different from the receptive and exploitative personality. According to Silver (2017) , the hoarding personality always tries to save whatever they material things have obtained. This is also inclusive of feeling and their opinions making them more reserved ( Silver, 2017) . The hoarding personality does not see anything positive in the world and attaches little value from it apart from the things they have obtained in life. Individuals with the hoarding personality have a problem with retention making their socialization process more withdrawn ( Silver, 2017) . However, they are very assertive and cannot compromise in what they believe. They tend to think everything is suspicious and have unimaginative thoughts of what may happen to them if they engage in specific activities ( Silver, 2017) . The positive aspect of the hoarding personality includes not being very extravagant and being very practical.
The marketing personality of one of the most likable personality according to Fromm's theory of personality. Fromm's asserts that the marketing personality is not only friendly but also very prevalent in the modern capitalist society ( Silver, 2017) . Individuals with the marketing personality tend to value themselves very much and perceive things as sellable commodities that can generate a lot of resources. The marketing personality according to Fromm is highly valued in the market hence attracting a lot of buyers ( Silver, 2017) . Their socialization process is just like the hoarding type thus tends to be more withdrawn. However, individuals with the marketing personality are much focused, ambitious and tend to adapt to various changes. They ambitious nature may lead to them becoming opportunistic and selfish ( Silver, 2017) .
The productive personality encompasses psychologically healthy people who work hard towards achieving love and forming productive relationships ( Durkin, 2016) . According to Fromm, the prolific personality is very humane and emotional to oneself, others and the things that surround them. Their socialization process is based on forming positive and loving relationships ( Durkin, 2016) . The productive personality attains assimilation by working hard towards their goals. As compared to the non-productive personality orientations, the productive orientation is based on being purposeful, caring, open-minded and devotion ( Durkin, 2016). According to Fromm, this types of personality are applicable in the world today especially in the capitalist societies depending on an individual's goals in life.
Validity and Accuracy
Fromm’s personality theory was first tested through empirical investigations in the 1960s in Mexico. Researcher such as Maccoby with the use of questionnaires attempted to evaluate how the Mexican population as was able to relate to the theory of personality as described by Fromm. According to the sample population they assessed, the data gathered showed that indeed the socio-economic structure of the society affected the personality development of individuals. According to Guntrip (2018), personality types such as hoarding, receptive and exploitative developed as a result of the social conditions that existed at that time. However, there was little attempt to research individuals in different social strata exceptionally the rich to determine how the marketing personality develops.
Over the years, various researches and psychologist have developed a test relating to biophilia, a concept that means passionate love of life. According to a study conducted by Silver (2017), biophilia is only related to political attitudes and opinion. This is consistent with Fromm's theories where greediness characterizes politicians in the modern life to acquire everything that makes them happy.
Cultural Perspectives of Fromm’s theory
When considering the contemporary cultural perspectives of Fromm’s theory, the concept of necrophilia is of particular interest. This is because it also provides the contemporary debates on issues such as abnormal personalities in abnormal psychology. According to Fromm, necrophilia is generally sexual attraction towards the dead. Fromm noted that necrophilia is not only motivated by sexual desires but is a condition that was a reflection of maladaptive psychological problems that existed in individuals, affecting their overall personality. He further argues that the necrophiliac character is frequently overwhelmed by the malignant incestuousness( Fromm 2014). Regarding Freud's concept of the Oedipus complex, upon the death of their partners, most people go through existential problems such as isolation and loneliness. This loneliness emerges from the fact that the dead partner was the source of comfort and primary caregiver. The separation is a severe psychological struggle for every human being prompting them to find a source of consolation.
Necrophilic behavior in the contemporary society is not only linked to sexual desires towards the dead but also to destructive behavior as individuals try to exercise freedom and resolve their problems. Narcissist behaviors such as homicide are prevalent in the world today as individuals seek to address their issues by destroying the world. Silver (2017), tries to instantiate this destructive behavior as depicted by Fromm. He asserts that in the contemporary society most people are trapped in conditions that make their life unbearable. With no possibility of love or empathy from anyone, they retreat in narcissists egos that aims at killing and destroying others (Fromm, 2014).
Alternative Theoretical Positions
The trait approach theory of personality assumes that the behavior of an individual is determined by ingrained traits that are fundamental to building one's personality ( Boyle, Matthews & Saklofske, 2008). Traits, therefore, predispose someone to act in a certain way, despite the situation he is in. Traits are also very consistent regardless of time but vary from one person to another. The variance is as a result of the genetic predisposition of each. Eysenck is one of the trait theorists who believe that biological factors influence an individual‘s ability to learn and adapt to the environment, thus determining their personality. Eysenck believes that individual's characters are divided into two: introversion/extroversion and neuroticism/ stability.
According to Eysenck extroverts are sociable people who craze for social excitement. They tend to be impulsive, risk takers and are thrill seekers. On the other hand, introverts are quite reserved and very quiet. They tend to be more severe and are not usually easily over-aroused by simulation. Neuroticism according to Eysenck is used to determine how an individual can remain stable under stressful conditions. People with high neuroticism are volatile and will exhibit signs of fear and anxiety. On the other hand, people with low neuroticism/ normality have more balanced behavior when under pressure. Allport, a trait personality theorist, describes personality as a unique behavior that is determined by internal cognitive and motivational processes. Internal cognitive processes include intelligence and the temperament of an individual which are later shaped by the person's environment experiences.
The trait approach of personality has risen to become a dominant approach to understanding individual differences in personality. As compared to Fromm's theory, the trait approaches have delved into explaining how biological and genetic factors influence the personality of an individual ( Boyle, Matthews & Saklofske, 2008) . Besides, they have come with strategies for measuring individual personality differences such as the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire that has dominated the area of research in psychology. Regarding similarities, Fromm’s theory of personality which focuses on the basophilic axis is similar to the dimensions explore in the trait theory.
The trait approach as compared to Fromm’s existential theory of personality uses a comprehensive methodology. This means that it is easier to establish the psychometric reliability and validity of the measures used and established in measuring personality. For instance, scale reliability tests such as the alpha scale and the T-tests have ensured that the concept of reliability is thoroughly tested. According to Cortina (2015), the biophilia theory of personality according to Fromm's would need to go through rigorous testing to prove its validity and reliability. Fromm's theory would pass the tests as it is not only rooted in theory but also in data through the various empirical studies he conducted.
Application
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder is one of the most prevalent problems in the society today. PTSD develops when individual experiences a shocking or a scary event. While it is natural to feel scared after a traumatic situation, individuals with PTSD have recurrent frightening thoughts and bad dreams often interfering with their everyday activities. As with many emotional disorders, the repetitive scary thoughts sometimes victimize an individual leading to self-harm behaviors and externalizing the trauma to other victims.
For many years, there are challenges regarding which model of intervention is most suitable for dealing with PTSD. According to Van Deurzen (2014), the Cognitive Based Therapy) CBT) is the most widely used model which uses the medical approach without acknowledging the heuristic intervention. This, therefore, undermines the professional autonomy of the medical field. Thus, there is a need to develop new strategies that focus on the personality of individuals in dealing with the problems of trauma.
Existential therapy provides viable solutions when it comes to helping individuals who have PTSD. According to Guntrip (2018), existential treatment takes into consideration the relational aspect of the individuals who have undergone PTSD by understanding his experiences and potentials. The therapist creates a meaningful interaction with the person, providing a safe environment in which the client can be able to recover from the trauma. The existential therapists believe that an effective therapy encompasses the ability to help the client work through all her struggle during the entire therapeutic process (Van Deurzen, 2014).
In conclusion, Fromm’s existential theory of personality focused on how socio-economic structures helps in shaping our personality. In his early life, he had witnessed the rise of Nazism in Germany and the World War I. Additionally, he had worked with Freud and Marx, thus this experiences shaping his theory and research. According to Fromm, the development of biophilia personality provided an adequate explanation for destructive behaviors such as aggression. However, this behaviors could be improved through the integration of people in the society, cooperation, and rewards. Today, his theoretical underpinnings have helped in explaining various personality disorders and have also been used in offering solutions to people with different psychological disorders. The interventions proposed by Fromm in dealing with aggression such as reward cooperation would help in increasing the levels of biophilia in the society.
References
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