The feminist movement in the Indian context is much more modern as compared to other places such as Europe began earlier. Essentially, it refers to the application or use of political, social, and cultural movements, as well as theories and moral concepts in trying to address women’s rights. In other words, this movement attempts to realize equality for women (Pande, 2018). The feminism movement in India falls into three phases but civic activities began after independence in 1947 (Deo, 2012). Feminist activities developed in India due to factors such as religious, castle values, and historical reasons, but activists in the country used transnational engagement to advance the interests of women.
Phases of the Feminism Movement in India
Pre-Independence
Traditional Indian society was purely governed based on the caste system. This approach to societal division focuses on social stratification. In principle, the castle system segregated people based on hereditary occupations. The Indian women, therefore, had to survive in the castle system, which perpetuated oppression based on patriarchal family structures. However, some communities in India such as Bengali families, Nairs of Kerala, and specific Maratha clans practiced matriarchal tendencies where women were the breadwinners. In the past, Indian society was made of hierarchical systems within communities and families. Factors such as sex, age, position in the community, kinship relationships, lineage, and castle influence these hierarchies. When hierarchies developed within families and communities based on economic needs and social convention, women in poor families were vulnerable to abuse (Amita, 2015). Social stratification and the castle system differed across castles. Therefore, the experience of the Indian woman before the emergence of feminism revealed multiple patriarchies. For this reason, feminism in the Indian context has changed with time in relation to cultural and historical realities (Ghosal, 2005). However, the Indian feminist movement has largely operated in the context of transnational engagement.
Delegate your assignment to our experts and they will do the rest.
First Phase
Most authors do not agree on the actual dates of the three Indian feminist movements. However, this movement has three phases. Pande (2018) and Amita (2015) clarify that the first feminist movement in Indian began around the 1980s and ended in 1915. On the other hand, Deo (2012) the first feminist struggle in India was largely anti-imperial, and began in 1990, ending in 1947. However, these authors examine crosscutting issues or themes. In particular, the goals of the first feminist movement focused on social reforms to realize women’s empowerment. According to Pande (2018), social reforms provided the Indian women secular spaces in some areas where it was culturally wrong in society. Some of the organizations that defended the rights and space for the Indian women include Shri Zorastrian Mandal in Bombay (1903), and the Women’s Indian Association (1917). Amita (2015) clarifies that the struggle for women in India during the first phase centered on equality, end of widow immolation, allowing widows to remarry, individual rights, and literacy.
The birth of the feminism movement in Indian has a long and rich history. Deo (2012) clarifies that most feminist activists started working as members of other social reforms before pushing for the rights of women. An early figure such as Sarala Devi Chaudhurani was a member of the Indian National Congress. She began pushing for women’s equality after realizing women’s exclusion from making decisions. In 1910, she helped to establish Bharat Stree Mahamandal to educate the Indian women. She used a national platform or movement to empower women rather than outside. Margaret Cousin, an Irish social activist also took a crucial position in championing the liberties of women in Indian during the first phase (Deo, 2012). She went to India in 1915 and raised her voice against patriarchy and colonization Cousin helped to establish the All India Women’s Conference (AIWC). Presently, AIWC is a substantial partner in advancing the voice of the Indian women. The early women activists focused on specific issues such as voting rights, education, and individual freedom (Deo, 2012).
Second Phase
The second phase commenced after India’s independence in 1947. Most organizations in the first phase were religious in nature. However, after gaining independence, civic associations joined the movement (Deo, 2012). The introduction of some form of liberty in the early 1900s did not translate into measurable and tangible realities until India gained its independence in 1947. After Indian’s liberation, the government passed critical legislation for women, including the Removal of Disabilities Act (1956), Special Marriage Act, 1956 Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, Hindu Marriage Act, and Dowry Prohibition Act, among others. For instance, dowry payments are one of the traditional Indian practices that resulted in violence and oppression against women. By the 1950s, it was a social problem because newlywed women underwent physical and psychological as a corollary to dowry demands. Because of several dowry-related violence cases, the Dowry Prohibition Act has helped to lessen violence against women (Sajid, 2016). Overall, the passing of these legislations was meant to accelerate equality and opportunities for women (Amita, 2015). The agenda for the feminist movement in the second phase was economic empowerment. The 1960 and 70s marked the transnational level of feminism activities in India. For instance, many activists initiated ties with Maoist and Communist parties. These helped women to protest against working conditions, environmental degradation, and price hikes (Deo, 2012).
The 1970s to Present
In the 1980s, Indian feminists focused on women’s violence as a critical issue. The formation of new non-profit organizations helped in advancing transnational activism. Empowering women financially has been the best approach to fight violence targeting women (Deo, 2012). The third phase of the feminist activities in India witnessed the passing of legislation to protect women’s interests. Some of these legislations include a modification to the Hindu Succession Act, the 1986 Protection of Rights on Divorce Act, and the 2005 Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act. The revision of the Hindu Succession Act, for instance, gave daughters the liberty to own property. In particular, daughters began enjoying the same rights as sons. Moreover, the country passed legislation to safeguard workplaces and protect women from sexual harassment (Amita, 2015). The Constitution of India also safeguards equality. Article 16 outlines equal pay while Article 15(3) protects women’s dignity (Amita, 2015).
Achievements and Setbacks of the Feminism Movement
The feminism movement has continued to realize considerable achievements for the modern Indian women. For instance, in the post-independence era, there has been a significant policy change in favor of women. India has recorded a change or a move from welfare programs to incorporating women in economic and social development. The movement has been at the forefront in empowering women politically, economically, and socially. In particular, the amendments to the 1993 Indian Constitution have provided seats for women in the municipalities. This has been a major breakthrough in terms of women empowerment. At least 1.2 million women have been elected to serve as representatives in local and rural institutions since the amendments to the Indian Constitution (Pande, 2018). Feminism continues to contribute to the economic realization of women. For instance, Indian women continue to participate in the UN Conference in order to eradicate poverty and realize economic equity. Feminist activists continue to call out policymakers to include women in government programs (Deo, 2012). Moreover, the concept of “doing gender” has helped to advance women’s studies in India. For instance, the feminist movement was crucial was critical at the start of Women’s Studies in higher institutions of learning. The studies influenced by feminism have been critical in advancing the social and academic development of women. Globally, studies initiated by feminism continue to be critical in engaging an understanding of the concept of power. It has also shifted the intellectual landscape (Pande, 2018).
On the other hand, some women misuse the feminist agenda to push for self-centered political and economic goals. The use of the gender card in business to gain undue benefits (Marcus, 2015). Paternalism refers to the use of feminism for individual gains. Griffin (2008) argues that Sarah Palin’s used a feminist card for personal gains. Griffin (2008) clarifies that while Sarah Palin is a smart woman, she took advantage of the struggle against women’s rights to gain political recognition. In general, the premise that women have been struggling to compete with men in knowledge, social, economic, and political development continues to formulate explanations in relation to their relationship with men. However, women should not use feminism as a tool to advance their political ambitions (Pande, 2018). Instead, feminism should be a theory or concept to advance the rights and interests of women to realize equality in rights and opportunities.
Conclusion
Several factors such as the caste system and historical reasons initiated the emergence of feminist movements in India. The impact of transnational strategies also helped to advance women’s equality in India. The use of a transnational approach played a vital part in shaping feminism in the country. However, transnational politics were less influential in pushing for women’s liberties in the country in the 1950s and 60s. Overall, the feminist activities in India have continued to be crucial in advancing women’s rights. The movement has helped to advance Indian women’s social, economic, and educational development.
References
Amita, M. (2015). Feminism in India-A Fractured Movement. Indian Journal of Research , 4 (2). 75-78.
Deo, N. (2012). Indian women activists and transnational feminism over the twentieth century. Journal of Women's History , 24 (4), 149-174. https://doi.org/10.1353/jowh.2012.0037
Ghosal, S. G. (2005). Major trends of feminism in India. The Indian Journal of Political Science , 793-812.
Griffin, S. (2008, November 4). Palinism - taking advantage of feminism for personal gain . open Democracy. Retrieved June 16, 2020, from https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/palinism-taking-advantage-of-feminism-for-personal-gain/
Marcus, B. (2015, September 14). Playing the gender card in business and politics . Forbes. Retrieved June 16, 2020, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/bonniemarcus/2015/09/14/playing-the-gender-card-in-business-and-politics/#6e9bebfd129a
Pande, R. (2018). The history of feminism and doing gender in India. Revista Estudos Feministas , 26 (3). https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-9584-2018v26n358567
Sajid, N. (2016). Dowry prohibition act. The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies , 1-2. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss161
