History and Philosophy of Teaching and Learning
The history of teaching and learning can be traced back to the emergence of agriculture. It involved making children good laborers. An obedient child was considered as one who was able to suppress his/her urge to engage in play and dutifully conduct their masters’ duties. The philosophy of education back then was, to an extent, different from the one held by hunters and gatherers who existed thousands of years before the invention of agriculture. For secular and religious reasons, the idea of having mandatory and universal teaching and learning arose, and it spread quickly. Teaching and learning, at this point, were perceived as inculcation. Knowledge and values were instilled through repetitions (Murphy, 2012). As automation in industries began to grow across the world, child labor decreased. The idea that childhood should be a learning period and development of schools as learning spaces began to spread widely.
The practice of mandatory and universal education started gradually across Europe in the 16 th and 19 th centuries. Most of the impetus for both mandatory and universal education rose from the emerging protestant groups led by individuals such as Martin Luther (Murphy, 2012). They believed that salvation relied on the ability of every person to read the Bible to understand the absolute truths. As a result, education was promoted as a Christian obligation. By the end of the seventeenth century, countries such as Germany were leading in schooling and had developed laws requiring most states to have children attend school. However, the schools were not run by the state but by the church. In the United States, Massachusetts was the first colony to make schooling compulsory in the mid-seventeenth century. The purpose of schooling in Massachusetts was to make children become good Puritans.
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The philosophy of teaching and learning has a long and unique history that can be traced back to Western philosophical aspects such as those developed by Socrates among other education philosophers. Education philosophers have always focused on what the aims of teaching and learning should be and the teaching, inquiry, and practice methods that can allow attainment of the aims. The philosophy of teaching and learning started through classical antiquity after Socrates presented challenges related to the educational perspective of the sophists. The main historical came up with philosophical perceptions of teaching and learning that were rooted in the wider political, metaphysical, ethical, and epistemological frameworks (Murphy, 2012).
Educational philosophy is said to take two forms. Historically, the philosophy of education takes the first form, but when subjected to analytical philosophy can assume the second form. The first form comprises of education philosophy developed by various philosophers such as Aristotle and John Locke as well as Augustine. Their philosophy of education was developed in the context of ethical frameworks. However, the philosophy of education in the 20 th century was developed in the context of the foundations of education by being linked to other areas of education, such as sociology and psychology. Philosophers such as Paul Goodman and Robert Hutchins contributed towards the second form of philosophy of education.
Among the early philosophers is Socrates, who developed the Socratic way of questioning. This led to the start of the practice of reasoning and looking for reasons to justify beliefs or actions (Gutek, 2012). This type of questioning gave rise to the perception that teaching and learning ought to encourage learners to the largest level possible pursuit of a life of reason (Murphy, 2006). Although other philosophers after Socrates have come up with divergent philosophical perceptions, most of them hold unto the idea that reason occupies a central location in teaching and learning. Plato’s philosophy of education viewed education as a means of achieving individual and social justice. According to Plato, a person can achieve justice if he/she develops the ability to the fullest (Gutek, 2012). Plato proposed that the fundamental role of education should be to help learners value reason and become reasonable; hence value wisdom over pursuits such as pleasure. The utopian perspective of Plato is regarded by many as the precursor for educational sorting.
Plato’s perspective of sorting learners has been rejected by philosophers such as John Dewey, who proposed that teaching and learning ought to be designed for an individual child. Dewey rejected the idea that learners should be sorted into hierarchical groups. He is considered a proponent of education that is child-centered. Other philosophers such as Aristotle argued that education should promote good judgment and wisdom. Also, he emphasized on promotion of moral virtue and character development (Gutek, 2012). Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s philosophy of education argues that education should allow free and natural child development. His education philosophy led to what is referred to today as open education. Rousseau’s education philosophy also proposes a difference in the education offered to boys and girls. As a result, his philosophy caused issues related to gender and its position in education. There are many other philosophers such as Karl Max and Thomas Aquinas, among many others who have contributed to educational thought. Regardless of the differences in their philosophies, they all agree that teaching and learning aim to foster rationality.
Historic and Current Theories of Leadership as they are applied to Teaching and Learning
Teacher’s behavior in classroom practice should show leadership skills combined with appropriate instructional strategies. Leadership is considered second to classroom instruction in factors related to learning. Different leadership theories rea applied in teaching and learning, and each one of them influences classroom practice differently. There are four major categories of leadership theories. These are trait, behavioral, situational, and transformational theories (Lussier & Achua, 2015). Situational leadership is based on the proposition that the most effective leadership style varies according to the present situation. Leadership styles under this category are divided into four groups, which are high, low, directive, and supportive leadership styles. Each situation and the developmental level of each follower, determines the most appropriate and effective style that should be used.
In the classroom context, the teacher is the leader, while the student is the follower. As a result, the teacher should be able to change his/her behavior to fit into the varying situations they encounter when teaching. Learners may fall into varying levels of readiness, and instructors ought to be able to make the necessary adjustments. A successful instructor is one who is able to his/her students and identify what works with them and what does not work. This is similar to leaders who are expected to know those who follow them. By doing so, a teacher can use this knowledge to achieve learning and teaching goals. Trait theories of leadership is founded on the assumption that leaders possess some specific traits that differentiate them from non-leaders (Lussier & Achua, 2015). Teachers can apply trait theories to assess how their position in class as a leader can be improved or strengthened. A teacher can use the theory to evaluate his/her identity and how he/she affects his/her students in the classroom. This theory can make the teacher become aware of his/her strengths as well as weaknesses hence start understanding how he/she can develop leadership qualities.
Behavioral theories of leadership focus on the behavior of leaders, and it is based on the assumption that leaders can copy leadership traits (Lussier & Achua, 2015). From a behavioral theory perspective, the teacher (leader) models the kind of behaviors and learning that he/she expects to see in students and encourage them. Such leaders are transparent and do not conceal their mistakes. They are transparent so that other people can reconstruct as well as follow their way of doing things. A teacher can copy leadership traits and start applying them to learners as appropriate.
Behavioral theory can help an instructor to understand how his/her behavioral style affects his/her relationship with learners and contributes towards the goals of learning. Behavioral theory can help an educator identify the appropriate balance between the various leadership styles and decide on how to conduct him/herself as a leader based on the needs of learners. In transformational leadership theory, leaders work with their teams to recognize the required change, develop a vision, and implement the change (Lussier & Achua, 2015). Teachers can apply the transformational theory to create bonds and encourage learners to increased levels of achievement through leading by example .
Historical Context and Philosophic Relationship between Assessment and Accountability for Teaching and Learning
Assessment is always a critical aspect of the educational system. Throughout the years, the character of assessment has changed significantly. Concerns related to reading and literacy in computation made most states to standardize assessments. The role played by assessments has continued to advance as policymakers implement assessment to improve education. Assessments provide information, and based on the type and utilization of the information generated, assessments can have several uses in education. An assessment is meant to serve specific purposes, and tests that serve a single purpose are less likely to be considered appropriate for another purpose. From a historical perspective, the main issue that arose in the 1990s were those related to inappropriate application of tests as proof of success or failure. Assessments developed or chosen by instructors are essential aspects of educational assessment. Teachers apply assessments to guide instructional actions, motivate and reward learners, allocate grades, and give a report on the progress of learners. Instruction and assessment are linked when instructors gather evidence on learners’ performance and apply it to shape their teaching.
Accountability includes use assessment information to produce incentives in order to validate or even change learners’ and instructors’ behaviors (Brennan, 2015). Therefore, when combined, assessments and accountability provide a means through which ideas on reforming education can flow. Strong incentives for changes in education are offered by accountability methods that apply information obtained from assessments to make decisions regarding learners, instructors, and learning institutions. Both accountability and assessment policies offer clear guidance for instructors and school heads on learner outcomes. Also, the policies can provide a positive force for changes in instruction as well as curriculum.
In situations where assessments align with the goals and aims of learning, an accountability framework can provide motivation to class instruction to pay attention to the outcomes. Therefore, it is perceived that linking assessment and accountability is a powerful technique for making sure that all learners are subjected to the same standards. However, according to Brennan (2015), accountability testing causes changes in student, teacher, and stakeholders behaviors. However, these behavioral; changes are associated with negative outcomes such as inflated scores. According to Brennan (2015), Koretz argues that the negative outcomes need a reconsideration of the present design, link, and validation processes that are common in the current accountability systems that are based on tests.
References
Brennan, R. L. (2015). Testing for accountability: A balancing act that challenges current testing practices and theories. Measurement: Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives , 13 (1), 35-38. https://doi.org/10.1080/15366367.2015.1016329
Gutek, G. L. (2012). Historical and philosophical foundations of education: A biographical introduction . Pearson Educacion.
Lussier, R. N., & Achua, C. F. (2015). Leadership: Theory, application, & skill development . Cengage Learning.
Murphy, M. M. (2006). The history and philosophy of education: Voices of educational pioneers . Prentice Hall.
