Human Growth and Development

Introduction 

Human beings undergo cognitive, behavioral, emotional as well as physical growth and development as they transit from childhood, through adolescence to adulthood. Every individual develops a new set of attitude, values and personality traits that guide his or her understanding, choices and relationships with other people. According to Sigelman and Rider (2014), development refers to the systematic changes that an individual undergoes between the time of conception and the time of his or her death. The developmental changes are systematic in the sense that they are not unpredictable but rather, orderly and patterned. At the early childhood (3-6 years) for instance, a child begins to develop personality traits, become self-sufficient, obtain self-control and acquire language. At late childhood (7-12 years), the child begins to undergo not only emotional but also intellectual development as he or she interacts with other people outside the home. By the time the child is completing the adolescent stage, his or her social, physical, emotional and mental development are complete and is now considered a socially mature person. The following paper will reflect on the theories relating to human growth and development. The main course material used is Lifespan Human Development by Carol Sigelman and Elizabeth Rider. Introduction 

Theories of individual and family development across the lifespan 

According to the Sigelman’s and Rider’s book, Life Span Human Development, the periods of lifespan include prenatal period (conception to birth), infancy (0-2 years), pre-school period (2-6 years), middle childhood (6-10 years), adolescence (10-18 years), emerging adulthood (18-25 years), early adulthood (25-40 years), middle adulthood (40-65 years) and late adulthood (65 years and above). As argued by human development experts, the cognitive, social, emotional, physical growth of human beings varies with the stage or period of development. 

Theories relating to individual’s development across the lifespan emerged in the 1960s when Paul Baltes, an expert in developmental psychology, outlined the assumptions that describe the lifespan perspective. The first assumption on individual development across the lifespan is that development is a lifelong process that not only occurs during childhood but also in adolescence and subsequently in adulthood. Psychologists studying human development believe that changes that occur during each lifespan stage have a significant impact on the changes that will take place in the future. For instance, they argue that career choices an individual makes during adolescent took shape during his or her childhood. 

The second assumption is that development is multidirectional in the sense that it is a universal process which leads to one direction. Today, experts argue that each lifespan level presents different patterns of change over an extended period of time. For instance, the intellectual abilities of individual declines in the late adulthood. However, for some, these intellectual abilities do not show any significant change, and for some, they even improve. From this illustration, it is clear that development of human beings across the lifespan could show growth or decline in human functioning. 

The third assumption relating to the theories of human growth is that development in each stage involves gains and losses. This means that change is not only multidirectional in terms of time but also multidirectional within the domains of development. For example, an individual’s mature ages can be characterized by declined cognitive functioning and at the same time, enhanced language abilities. Experts in the field of human development argue that gains and losses at each developmental stage occur jointly, that is, gain brings loss and vice versa. 

The fourth theory on individual development across the lifespan posits that development is a lifelong plasticity in all stages of life. According to Sigelman and Rider (2014), plasticity is the tendency of changing positively or negatively in response to experience. Developmental scholars argue that the development of children can be ruined if they are subjected to a deprived environment and can be optimized if their environment for growth is enriched. It is important to note that this plasticity may even continue to later stages of life and that the aging process can be modified depending on the experiences of an individual. For instance, older adults can improve their intellectual capabilities through physical exercises, having an active lifestyle or by obtaining some training or therapy meant for enhancing cognitive skills. 

The fifth assumption is that development takes shapes based on historical and cultural contexts. To demonstrate how historical-cultural contexts influence individual development across the lifespan, psychology researchers have determined how for example, the Great American Depression affected the development of the children and adolescents in that era. This economic crisis affected children in the sense that their jobless fathers became stressed and inconsistent in disciplining them. As a result of this, children developed behavioral problems that affected their academic performance. When these children grew up, they became men and women with unreliable careers and unstable marriages (Sigelman & Rider, 2014). 

Another assumption adding up to the theories of individual development across the lifespan is multiple forces influence that developed. Developmental scientists believe that the development of human beings depends on the nature and nurture of many factors inside and outside and individual. They also believe that human development if influenced by environmental and biological factors. It is important to note that some influential forces are common in all ages while others are just specific to a particular age group or generation (Sigelman & Rider, 2014). 

Theories of learning 

Centered on the influence of environmental factors such as reinforcements, observations, associations, and punishments, learning theories explain why different individuals behave in the manner they do. There are different approaches and theories used by psychologists to understand learning in human beings. However, the basic types include behaviorist, cognitive constructivist, and the social constructivist theories 

Behaviorist theories 

Behaviorist theories include such theories as classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social cognitive theories. Classical conditioning is a learning concept that was developed by Ian Parlov, a Russian psychologist. He carried out an experiment concerning a dog’s digestive systems and realized that the dog always salivated when the lab assistant came to feed them. This means that the dogs had learned to associate food with the lab assistant who, in this experiment, is the neutral stimulus. This theory suggests that human beings learn new behaviors through associations. 

Operant conditioning is a concept that relies on association just like in classical conditioning. However, in this case, the association is between a particular behavior and its consequences or outcome. If the behavior has a positive outcome, it is likely to occur again in the future and vice versa. A good example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher gives a student a reward after performing well in his or her studies. A good example of negative reinforcement is when a parent punishes a child for having pica eating. 

Albert Bandura’s social learning theory suggests that people learn behaviors through observation and imitation. For example, a child may clap his hands to imitate his mother. Bandura argues that the way human beings process information is critical in their development, learning, and behavior (Sigelman & Rider, 2014). The psychologist refers to his theory as social cognitive theory rather than social learning theory to demonstrate that the theory is all about the motivation role of cognition in the behavior of human beings. For instance, a child may not engage in a certain behavior by just observing another person doing it until there is motivation to do so. 

Cognitive constructivist 

Psychologist Jean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive constructivism. It suggests that human beings cannon understand or even use information that they have recently received. Instead, they must construct knowledge through their experiences and hypotheses relating to the environment hence creating schemas in their minds. One principle derived from this argument is that learning is not only an active but also a constructive process. It is important not to ignore the fact that people distinct or unique processes of interpreting and constructing knowledge. 

Social constructivist 

Developed by psychologist Lev Vygotsky, social constructivism theory puts more emphases that the nature of learning is collaborative. Unlike other psychologists like Perry and Piaget, Vygotsky believes that learning should not be separated from its cultural and social context. He posits that learning is not a process whereby individuals accommodate and assimilate new knowledge, but rather a process that involves social interactions. 

Theories of normal and abnormal personality development 

Personality refers to the unique characteristics that distinguish one individual to another. According to Weinberg and Gould (2015), personality refers to the dynamic blend and organization of traits within an individual. These traits make a person unique in his behavior, thought process as well as characteristics. Numerous scholars have tried to give a conclusive definition as to the distinction between normality and abnormality, with minimal success in the field. However, the difference between normal and abnormal personality can be defined as a continuum with whose extremes are majorly the normality and abnormality domain. There are numerous theories which have been given in regards to normal and abnormal personality developments. Some of the famous scholars who gave their view on the topic include Eysenck who identified three proportions of personality, Cattell whose model suggested looking at the wider angle of dimensions as opposed to Eysenck three-dimensional model, and Allport’s theories just to mention but a few (Weinberg & Gould, 2015). 

Freud’s theory on personality traits takes into consideration several factors. These factors include Instinctual drives, the unconscious processes, and early childhood experiences. Personality development depends heavily on the instinctual and environmental variances during the first five years as a child. Thus a guardian’s influence is critical to the development of the personality traits of an individual. The first part of his theory suggests that human beings, as well as children, are hedonistic and therefore they are constantly driven by the inner desires to seek for outwards pleasure or gratification and satisfaction. For the coining of this theory, Freud used his id model to explain. He stated that this is the instinctual part of a person which contains in it hidden memories, sexual and aggression. He said that parental care during their tender ages drastically shapes their personality. His other theories on personality development which ultimately impact the normal or abnormal behavior include the tripartite theory (Drassinower, 2003). 

Theories and etiologies of addictions and addictive behaviors 

Addiction is a substance or behavioral trait which has become an inherent part of someone life, and as a result making it their main focus in life. Addictions lead to the omission of important things in their lives such as family, friends, responsibilities and may potentially result in harm to their mental or physical health. Etiological studies mainly focus on the likely causes of drug abuse. Research on Addictions, more so drug addiction, sensitize on the fact that no one factor is constant for the initiation of drugs, continuation as well as escalation to the use of drugs (Sigelman & Rider, 2014). 

Addictions are categorized into two groups; Physical addiction, which includes addictions to activities such as drinking, and cocaine. While psychological dependencies involve issues such as sex, gambling, working out, to name but a few. Experts believe that such activities produce endorphin in the brain and give the individual a false feeling of high. The individual, therefore, desires this feeling of euphoria and therefore continuous with the addictive cycle, which in the long run leads to chronic addiction. 

Common characteristics amongst addicts include obsession, compulsive engagement, denial, withdrawal symptoms, and depression. Some of the theories which relate to drug use indicate that addictions are a familial trait. A study conducted on the same reveal that members of a family linked with alcohol addiction, are more likely to fall into the same traps as opposed to a family with no history of alcohol addictions. The study was conducted on adopted children. The child with the alcohol hereditary genes was found to fall into addiction, even when put in a non-drinking family. Whereas the child without the alcohol addiction genes, never succumbed to the temptations of drinking alcohol, even when put in a foster family with a severe drinking problem (Sugarman, 1986). 

Biological, neurological, and physiological factors that affect human development, functioning, and behavior 

Human development, functioning, and behavior are influenced by biological, physical, chemical, neurological and physiological factors. The genes of a person determine the natural features like the hair. However, the social cues in the environment influence the way one does things e.g. how one makes his/her hair. An individual's behavior that is influenced by the genetic makeup may be as a result of a particular gene. However, genes facilitate reactions to certain environments. The genetic makeup brings about the differences between the growth’s pattern of the males and the females. 

Factors like genes, hormones, nutrients, etc. influence an individual's physical performance. Some of these factors are hereditary while others like dietary restrictions, psychological stress, etc. are environment-related. Both the genetic and environmental factors affect an individual's growth rate. Socio-economic factors also affect growth and are as a result of the combination of genetic and ecological factors. How a person behaves is because of the genetic makeup. However, genes do not determine an individual's behavior (Sigelman & Rider, 2014). 

Behavioral genetics is the study of heritability of behavioral traits, genetics, psychology, and etiology; how genetics and the environment influence a person's behavior. Genetics determines processes like learning, growth, and development, for example, a child may be unable to walk until the genome that predetermines the age does so. However, environmental factors determine when the child will walk, within the range predetermined by the genome. Genetics refer to nature while the environment relates to nurturing. Both are a complex interaction that strongly influences human behavior (Overton & Lerner, 2010). 

Classical genetics is the study of how genes are passed from one generation to the next and how sexual reproduction can determine a gene's presence or absence; the law of Mendelian inheritance, by Gregor Mendel, states that certain traits follow particular patterns. Manipulating the genetic makeup through selective breeding like cross-breeding to achieve certain characteristics may impact one's behavior. 

Systemic and environmental factors that affect human development, functioning, and behavior 

Environmental factors affect individuals' behavior differently even in the case of identical twins. The aspect of human behavior is influenced by the genetic makeup, the environment or both. The genetic makeup determines an individual's natural features like the hair. However, social cues in the environment influence the way one makes his/her hair. Different environmental conditions can affect the same genetic makeup, for example, identical twins living in different places may have different personalities. Environmental factors influence an individual's maturity level (Sigelman & Rider, 2014). 

Climate may affect the rate of growth; various humankind races have different statures due to the different climatic conditions. The seasonal variations influence the velocity of growth. Nurture is the impact of an individual's development by the environmental factors, for example when a fetus is in the womb, harmful agents like drugs can harm the baby's development while nature is the genetic makeup or the character an individual genetically inherits from the parent. The environment refers to nurture. Both nature and nurture are a complex interaction that strongly influences human behavior (Hernandez & Blazer, 2006). 

Effects of crisis, disasters, and trauma on diverse individuals across the lifespan 

A disaster is an extraordinary occurrence, which is confusing and frightening. Children are the most affected during such an event, and they require emotional support. A disaster can displace people from their homes. And when this happens, there is separation and loss. A child, separated from the caregiver, and he or she develops fear and anxiety. The child's behavior may also be disorganized, despite the quality of their attachment with the caregiver. However, those children who had a secure attachment with the caregiver become resilient to recovering from such traumatic occurrences. For children who had an insecure attachment with their caregivers, such disruptions appear difficult to resolve. A child's development stage influences behavior and understanding of such traumatic happenings that occur during a disaster. Childhood is very different from adulthood. A child may not see things in different perspectives while an adult can be able to create mental images that help see things in different angles (Sigelman & Rider, 2014). 

Reactions to traumatic stress are normal reactions towards an abnormal situation. Trauma affects any engagement e.g. the presentation of treatment or even behavioral health service outcomes. After a traumatic experience, some people may exhibit post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), others may display resistant responses or some sub-clinical symptoms that cannot be diagnosed. Trauma's impact can be destructive. Factors like an individual's characteristic, type of the occurrence, one's definition of trauma, processes of development and socio-cultural factors determine how the event affects the individual (Dass-Brailsford, 2010). 

One's experiences, support from friends and family as well as coping skills determine an individual's reactions after a traumatic event. Reactions to such situations range in severity. Hence, even the most severe response is normal and not a psychotic case. Coping strategies help an individual's body to continue with the regular activities like regulating emotions, sustaining self-esteem and maintaining interpersonal contacts. 

A general framework for understanding differing abilities and strategies for differentiated interventions 

Humans tend to have different abilities as they progress in age. As humans age, so do their systems and organs. They, therefore, tend to be less productive and efficient, in comparison to their hay years. To understand the variances which occur, it is important that one first understands the general framework for understanding the differing abilities. It is worth noting that the age and rate with which these changes occur differs from one person to another. 

The framework used in understanding differing abilities majors on the major aspects identified below. Changes in vision which occur include; the inability to differentiate closely related objects, loss of color and the failure to distinguish detail. Loss of hearing whereby the individual is only able to identify very loud sounds and soft sounds are inaudible to them. The strength and flexibility are drastically reduced, and the individuals require assistance from other people. Reduced strength and flexibility also reduce the mobility of the persons. Taste smell and touch are some of the things deteriorate with time (Newman, 2016). 

The rate of deterioration depends on age and the rate. Therefore to give the required assistance to all individuals, it is mandatory to understand their level of deterioration. Certain strategies are used to identify the level of deterioration. These strategies are evaluation which helps to identify the level of deterioration. Synthesis and analysis which help to identify the proper strategies and the way forward when it comes to choosing the right interventions in reference to a particular individual. The comprehension and knowledge of the subject under study helps to evaluate the specific intervention which best suits certain individuals. Application of the interventions is solely made under keen determination as to which is the best-suited intervention (Sigelman & Rider, 2014). 

Ethical and culturally relevant strategies for promoting resilience and optimum development and wellness across the lifespan 

According to the Sigelman’s and Rider’s book, Life Span Human Development , the resilience theory was developed to describe the relative resistivity to psychosocial risk occurrences. The target group for this model is the poor and less fortunate in our societies. To improve wellness and optimum development across the human lifespan, it is of importance that the target group is given an even playing field to the rest of the society (Sigelman & Rider, 2014). 

One of the ways in which development and wellness can be promoted across the lifespan is by promoting education amongst the target communities. Education provides us with a level playing field whereby people of all social classes interact. People who are educated tend to do better than those who are not. Though education can be quite expensive to the poor, it is one of the best approaches which can be used to improve the lives of an entire community. An old adage says, educate a child you educate the whole community. This shows the close tie education and improved well-being has across the lifespan. By educating a particular member of a community, they are expected to return to their communities after study and assist in the upgrade of the lives of the community members. By so doing the wellness of a people improves. Not only does education improve the wellness of people, but also the resilience. Educated people can avert future hazards by planning well ahead, and as a result improving their lives (Weinberg & Gould, 2015). 

Counseling is another method which may be used to improve the resilience and well-being of a community. By counseling a people properly, the target group can avert future risks which threaten the wellness of their lives. This, therefore, goes a long way in improving the quality, and wellness of the target group all across the lifespan (Drassinower, 2003). 

References 

Newman, B. M., & Newman, P. R. (2016). Theories of human development 

Dass-Brailsford, P. (2010). Crisis and disaster counseling: Lessons learned from Hurricane Katrina and other disasters . Los Angeles: SAGE. 

Drassinower, A. (2003). Freuds Theory on Culture. Lanham: Rowman &Littlefield . 

Hernandez, L. M., & Blazer, D. G. (2006). Genes, behavior, and the social environment: Moving beyond the nature/nurture debate. Washington. D.C: National academy Press. 

Kraus, K. L. (2008 ). Lenses. Boston: Cengage Learning 

Overton W., & Lerner R. (2010). The Handbook of life-span development : Vol. 1. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. 

Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2015). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology . 

Sigelman, C. K., & Rider, E. A. (2014). Life-span human development. 

Sugarman, L. (1986). Life Span Development . Methuen: Methuen Publishers