Learning theories have great significance in psychology since they help professionals in this discipline to understand how people acquire, retain, recall knowledge. Examples of learning theories include constructivism, cognitive psychology, and information processing theories. Counseling students must understand and internalize the applications of these theories to areas such as psychology and education. Having sufficient and working knowledge of these theories is vital since, above all, they attempt to explain the underlying factors of memory problems. A person with memory problems often has trouble with storing and remembering information acquired from the environment ( Antunes & Pinheiro, 2019 ). Problems with retrieving information can be occasioned by decay or interference. Information processing theory expounds on the issue of memory problems by giving detailed insights on the storage and retrieval of information from the long-term memory (LTM). It is crucial to have an in-depth understanding of learning theories and especially information processing theory, because it helps one have a holistic discernment on the issue of memory problem.
Constructivism Theory
Constructivism theory provides an elaboration of how humans acquire and learn from their surroundings, and it is founded on psychological principles. The theory is hinged on the tenet that the most critical aspect that influences learning is what a learner already knows (Dennick, 2016). When learners have preexisting concepts about a topic, their capacity to internalize detailed information is enhanced. The theory also states that people create understanding and attach meanings from their day to day life activities. Prior knowledge is acquired and influenced by one's surroundings, including both social and cultural backgrounds. Constructivism theory thus gives a direct approach to learning since knowledge acquisition happens when a learner constructs information from their personal experiences. According to Gunduz and Hursen (2015), learning under the constructivism theory is a social activity, and as such, a learner must have some prior knowledge of the subject matter. Through having nuggets of concepts, one will acquire and internalize information being passed to them.
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Cognitive Psychology Theory
Different from constructivism theory, the cognitive psychology theory attempts to explain the mental process that leads to understanding and retention. The theory is an extensive framework about how the human mind works in a learning scenario. It focuses on how the brain processes information and how learning occurs throughout the information processing phase ( Nouri & Talkhabi, 2012 ). The central pillar of the theory is that humans intellectually process information instead of replying to stimuli from their surroundings. Thus the theory centers more on what goes on in the mind of a learner than how they reacted. After learners get introduced to new information, they process it in their mind and attempt to attach meaning to the information ( Nouri & Talkhabi, 2012 ). It is this process of information processing that results in learning. The cognitive approach to learning is founded on the principle that one has to understand the thought process to understand the associated behavior. Changes and behavior should be considered but only as pointers to the mental processes of learners.
Information Processing Theory
Information processing theory focuses on how the mind functions, including a set of processes such as gathering, manipulation, storing and retrieving information from the mind. The theory uses a computer model to describe human learning. Based on this model, information is acquired, processed, stored, and then retrieved. Processing of information occurs in the short-term memory while storage takes place in the long-term memory (Rao, 2016). Information is thus recalled from long-term memory. Human sensory memory takes in information through processes such as hearing, seeing, and touching. When one pays attention to stimuli, that information moves to the short-term memory, which is the working memory. At the working memory, information is processed and pushed for storage in the long-term memory. For learning to occur, information must be particularized through rehearsal to amalgamate the new data.
Memory Problems at Encoding and Retrieval
Under the theory of information processing, there is an issue of memory problems, especially during encoding and retrieval stages. A Memory problem is a key factor that negatively impacts the education sector since learning to be effective; information learned must be retrieved from the long term memory. Successful encoding enhances the extraction of information, and thus, the learning process ( Berger & Lafferty, 2017 ). Through appropriate cues entering working memory and long term memory being activated through spreading activation, information retrieval is achieved by a learner. The spreading activation model posits that when information becomes easier to access as a result of being used, then it becomes activated ( Foster et al., 2017 ). The activation spreads between semantically interconnected ideas. For example, in a verbal learning scenario, the working mind of a learner will construct a response and attach meaning when information is obtained. The memory will continue to search until automatic retrieval of information is possible ( Berger & Lafferty, 2017 ). However, memory problems can occur at encoding and retrieval phases, which are occasioned by either decay or interference.
Memory problems occur anytime a learner has a loss of or is not able to retrieve information from long-term memory. When the encoding process is adversely affected by different factors, retrieval efficiency will not be possible (Ngo, 2018). Encoding occurs through different mechanisms such as meaningful learning, elaboration, and visual imagery. Elaboration involves a learner expanding on new information based on what is in their knowledge base. The knowledge expansion process is essential; it enhances the learning and retrieval of information. A teacher can deal with memory problems at encoding by using incremental strategies to teach. For example, when teaching, one can start from the most basic concept then proceed to build on those ideas going to the more complex information. Gradually, the teacher will expand the course content, and a learner will be able to retrieve the information easily. Decay as a memory problem occurs when information is lost from the working memory before it is integrated into the long-term memory ( Farrell et al., 2016 ). A teacher can introduce a complex concept, and the student fails to connect the new information with knowledge in long-term memory.
Memory problems may also be characterized by challenges with retrieving information from long-term memory. Interference happens when information previously stored in the secondary memory is lost and thus cannot be remembered ( Guo, 2019 ). The inability to retrieve information or loss of knowledge is called forgetting. There has been a disagreement on whether the information is lost from or it is still in memory in a forgetting scenario. Nevertheless, according to Ngo (2018), when a student forgets, the information could be interfering with its remembrance, or there are inadequate cues for retrieval purposes. Retroactive interference and proactive interference are two types of interference problem which cause forgetting. Retrospective interference occurs when verbal associations make recalling prior information difficult. Differently, proactive interference makes newer learning problematic due to older associations (Ngo, 2018). Forgetting can happen when there are no stimuli to trigger the retrieval process. In interference induced forgetting, thus arises when similar items in the brain compete or interfere with one another during the retrieval process.
In conclusion, several theories are available that explain how learning occurs. Some of these theories include cognitive psychology, constructivism, and information processing theory. Constructivism theory is based on the principle that learning happens from what a person already knows. Thus, a learner will construct complex information from their concepts in their brain. The cognitive psychology theory is centered on the tenet that, humans tend to process information mentally rather than responding to stimuli. Last, information processing theory posits that learning in people is phased and follows the computer mode. According to this model, information is gained, processed, stored, and later retrieved. Based on this theory, information retrieval can face hitches at the encoding and decoding phase. Such glitches are caused by delay or interference, respectively, and they are termed as memory problems.
References
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Farrell, S., Oberauer, K., Greaves, M., Pasiecznik, K., Lewandowsky, S., & Jarrold, C. (2016). A test of interference versus decay in working memory: Varying distraction within lists in a complex span task. Journal of Memory and Language , 90 , 66-87.
Foster, P. S., Wakefield, C., Pryjmak, S., Roosa, K. M., Branch, K. K., Drago, V., Harrison, D. W., & Ruff, R. (2017). Spreading activation in nonverbal memory networks. Brain informatics , 4 (3), 187–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40708-016-0058-y
Gunduz, N. & Hursen, C. (2015). Constructivism in Teaching and Learning; Content Analysis Evaluation. Journal of Social and Behavioral Science, 191 (3), 526-533
Guo, J. (2019, March). The Enlightenment of Information Processing Theory on College English Teaching. In 2018 8th International Conference on Education and Management (ICEM 2018) . Atlantis Press.
Ngo, V. M. (2018). Discovering Latent Information By Spreading Activation Algorithm For Document Retrieval. arXiv preprint arXiv:1808.01968 .
Rao, Z. (2016). Language learning strategies and English proficiency: interpretations from information-processing theory. The Language Learning Journal , 44 (1), 90-106.
