Domestic violence has attracted debate from various scholars in society. Different approaches are used in defining domestic violence. Some are general, whereas others are mainly gender centered. Brassiolo (2016) defines the concept as any abuse that emanates from either spouse or component of domestic setting leading to infliction of psychological or physical pain. Domestic abuse can be perpetrated through violence or harassment among people living together. According to the United States Centers for Disease Control, in every four women, one has experienced domestic violence ( Curry et al., 2018). Similarly, one in every seven men been affected by domestic violence ( Curry et al., 2018) . Through such information, one realizes that cases of domestic violence cut across different genders. The paper will focus on domestic violence based on how factors such as gender, socio-economic backgrounds, and geographical areas contribute to family violence, influence, and its analysis.
Domestic violence is a challenge affecting families from different classes and geographical regions. However, as outlined by Glenn & Goodman (2015), the rate of domestic violence is high among the poor and geographical areas characterized by low-income as compared to families from developed nations. People who reside in rural and remote areas experience cases of domestic violence as a result of issues related to social and cultural norms. Serrata et al. (2017) argue that relatively high domestic violence cases in rural areas are associated with a poor understanding of domestic violence concerning health, legal and social services. Disclosing domestic violence among rural dwellers is rare compared to urban settings. According to the National Rural Crime Network in the US, 25% of domestic violence is experienced in rural areas ( Brassiolo, 2016 ). Cattaneo & Goodman (2015) point out that the high rate of domestic violence in remote parts is attributed to the indigenous population. Social norms and structure deter women from disclosing family violence or seek support after experiencing abuse. Lack of suitable and fair justice-based response prevents accountability on the perpetrator, who most often have community protection. As such, the affected parties do not receive support from the community. Thus, resorting to silence, which leads to an increase in cases of domestic violence.
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On socio-economic background, different forms of violence are associated with women from developing societies. Cannon et al. (2016) argue that 87 % of women from poor societies are victims of physical and verbal abuse compared to 42% of their counterparts from developed communities. Despite that, the study established that intellectual and emotional violence was similar in both developing and developed setting. Socio-economic perspective contributes to violence against women based on male authority, applying force in resolving conflicts and restrictions associated with divorce. In areas experiencing low socio-economic issues, 3% of domestic violence is related to dowry payments ( Serrata et al., 2017). The predictors of family disputes related to socio-economic as outlined by Cattaneo & Goodman (2015) are thus associated with a lack of empowerment among women
Goodman et al. (2015) argue that women are the most affected gender when it comes to domestic violence. The main reason is associated with cultural norms that dictate on aggressive, dominant, and controlling nature of men. The belief that women are docile and subservient to men has also led to increased domestic violence cases. For example, based on Charles Darwin's theory of sexual selection, male aggressiveness for sex in women leads to violence due to their desire for sex, while women retaliation against sex causes a further escalation in violence ( Serrata et al., 2017). Female aggressiveness results from the need to be supplied with basic needs. According to Social Work Abstract and PsychInfo , domestic violence cases have been overlooked over the decades due to victims' silence since the perpetrators of domestic violence provide basic needs. In the US, 20,000 cases of domestic violence are reported every 20 minutes among women (Cannon et al., 2016) . The cases of violence are result from constraints in finances for family upkeep, thus causing increased tension at the family level. The highest number of gender-based violence is evident among middle-aged adults. Lloyd et al. (2017) reiterate that females are the main perpetrators of domestic violence; however, they are the most affected as compared to men. Nevertheless, Glenn & Goodman (2015) refutes the claim by highlighting that the information in most databases relating to gender violence does not depict the actual number of cases among men. Glenn & Goodman (2015) further reiterates that men experience various forms of violence; however, due to fear of humiliation and intimidation, they fail to report or share their experiences.
Goodman et al. (2015) argue that two in every three women, regardless of educational level, age, or class, experience physical, sexual, or psychological violence. Globally, abusive language is the main form of domestic violence, followed by wife-beating at 63% and 51%, respectively ( Ruddle et al., 2017). The findings from various scholars established that childcare, food preparation, and economic stress are the leading causes of domestic violence. High levels of domestic violence were associated with nuclear families than extended families (Lloyd et al., 2017 ). Similarly, women who have been in the marriage for long experienced many instances of violence as compared to newly married ones.
According to the meta-analysis carried out by Bowen (2015), domestic violence affects the relationship between parents and their children. The author argues that since the mother is most affected by domestic violence, their relationship with children is affected from early stages such as preschool level. In some cases, children brought up in families experiencing family violence may develop resilience and live a normal life. However, Bowen (2015) posits that in some cases, children who grew up in settings with domestic violence might develop stressful life events, especially when relating to their peers. As such, Ruddle et al. (2017) argue that domestic violence against women has advanced considerably in the past two decades. In spite of such information, critical gaps need to be addressed to facilitate the development of models that can be used in intervention against domestic violence (Cannon et al., 2016). As outlined by Cattaneo & Goodman (2015), research relating to differences in intensity of domestic violence prevalence among developed and developing regions needs further studies. More studies need to be done on reasons for high cases of domestic violence in fragile or poor states. Literature provides cultural practices and failure to report as main contributors to domestic violence in such areas. However, the information might not be satisfactory since, regardless of cultural practices, some families are not violent.
Nonetheless, longitudinal studies should be done regarding sequences of cause and effect in domestic violence. Lloyd et al., (2017) denotes that studies relating to macro-level factors such as political process and geographical distribution lacks in the studies. Therefore, long-term qualitative studies that encompass on ethnographic evaluation needs consideration. According to various scholars, issues such as food preparation and economic stress are the leading causes of domestic violence. However, there is a missing gap in the knowledge base regarding levels of interaction of such causative issues to be a potential risk for domestic abuse. Notably, it is essential to highlight that particular constellation of issues combined might lead a woman or man to be violent. The information covered only concentrated on causes and effects; however, the role of genetics in aggression should be researched (Serrata et al., 2017). Research needs to be conducted on the role of epigenetics in different forms of abuse. For example, are men who engage in wife-beating inherited the trait from their fathers? Brassiolo (2016) views that emerging studies have shown that genetics may play a role in wife-beating and psychological abuse. The author further outlines that issues such as sexual violence perpetration in some men are associated with genetic of origin. Therefore, for further understanding of why gender-based violence affects women from both developed and developing families, demonstration on the contribution of genetics is required. A deep understanding of patterns of susceptibility is required to understand why men are the main perpetrators of domestic violence. The research should be done in a wider range of countries across low, middle, and high income to obtain relevant data for comparison purposes.
The literature review covered was obtained from articles, book chapters, and information from various organizations dealing with rural studies and gender-based violence. The information was gathered from scholarly work done between 2015 and 2017. The purpose of the paper was to review knowledge regarding domestic violence from different scholars. A structured literature review methodology was utilized. The articles used provided evidence-based information regarding existing research in domestic violence. For instance, the paper analyzed ten published journals focusing on causes, effects, and the most affected gender in domestic violence. The information was obtained from databases like Google scholar and research methodologies such as meta-analysis for statistical purposes. Domestic violence is a growing concern in the public domain. Findings from various authors in domestic violence presented obstacles in the development of cohesive information needed in documented causes and effects of family violence. Thus, the literature review is fragmented in that the information from some authors showed that domestic violence mainly affected women. In contrast, some highlighted that evidence on women was rampant because men do not report cases of domestic violence. Areas associated with violence against women have been over-researched, while information regarding the abuse of men is inadequate—the literature review mainly covered data related to domestic violence in rural and among the poor. The research engine utilized words such as domestic violence, family abuse, and intimate family violence to obtain relevant articles. The title of the paper reflected on information covered by various authors in domestic violence and from publications of associations dealing with intimate family abuse. The methodological approach was qualitative; however, the emphasis provided covered the comparison between rates of domestic violence between women from low-income regions and those from developed parts and families.
In conclusion, as discussed in the literature, domestic violence is experienced among women in both developing and developed regions. Domestic violence requires extensive research and evidence-based methods that can be used to provide the main reasons for family abuse as well as extend in both men and women. Issues associated with domestic violence such as geographical areas, gender, and income level needs to be further studied. This literature provides various causes and effects of domestic violence, and the vulnerable gender affected by the abuse. It is clear that both men and women are victims; however, the lack of accountability leads to biasness in data regarding cases of family violence in both genders.
References
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