Question One
The actions of project expenditure are determined by the goals and objectives of the project. There are different means through which the project expenditure can be formulated. However, it must adhere to the objectives of the policy. For instance, if the project is informed by the policy of reducing income inequality, it means that the primary goal of the project is to ensure that the project will provide opportunities for low income earners to improve their income. Concisely, the expenditure should be directed towards the creation of programs that will improve the income of the entire society. In this regard, the anticipated outcome should be decreased discrepancy between high and low-income earners. Therefore, the relationship between the project expenditure and outcome is that all funds and resources should be focused on the attainment of the objectives and goals of the policy.
The actions of equality of education should be designed to address why some demographics in the society are disadvantaged and cannot access education. Tersely, the policy’s actions should include the identification of the reasons why some people cannot access high quality education. Some of the issues may include marginalization and poverty. The policy’s actions should also identify the appropriate means of addressing these issues. For instance, empowering marginalized communities is one of ways that equal access to education opportunities can be achieved (Schmid et al., 2017). The outcomes will incorporate the identification of the ideal means of ensuring that all members of the society are provided with the ideal means of obtaining education. In addition, the policy outcomes should also incorporate higher literacy levels in the demographics, which is essential in improving the economy and the wellbeing of the members of the community.
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Energy consumption is one of the contentious issues affecting the modern society. While companies argue that they need cheaper energy to cater for increased productivity, environmental organizations have argued that increased consumption of energy is an ecological threat that affects many people around the world. The policy actions should seek to balance the economic and environmental goals. When manufacturers are not producing to their capacity, the economy suffers. On the other hand, when industries use more energy, the environment suffers. In this regard, the actions will include coming up with a policy that will encourage sustainability within the industries. The outcomes should be a thriving economy that does not have adverse effects on the environment (Lewis, 2019). Concisely, the policy outcomes will reflect on the growth of the economy and the wellbeing of the society because of improved environmental impacts of the economic activities in the country.
Question Two
One of the policy problems facing work alienation. Precisely, some of the issues that afflict the economic productivity of a country is the fact that most of the individuals are forced to work in an environment that they do not feel they belong to. For instance, a worker can foreign to his or her labor products. The result is the reduced motivation to improve on their performance. On this note, the essential actions relating to a policy should to ascertain that the workers are provided with the ideal environment that will boost their outcomes. The indicator that can be used in the determination of whether the government action is solving the problem is the improved economic performance (Cahyo, 2016). The workforce productivity reflects directly on the economic performance. Therefore, parameters such as improving GDP and purchasing parity are perfect indicators if the policy is addressing the issue of work alienation.
The other issue that need to be addressed is school dropouts. On this note, there are many issues that could to increased cases of school dropouts including poverty and lack of motivation among students. The government policy should seek to reduce the rate of dropouts by providing incentives to parents and students. The students should be provided with the incentive of increased job opportunities while the parents need to be given financial assistance. One of the best indicators if the government action is working towards solving the issue is the improvement of literacy levels in the society. In this regard, encouraged students will strive to reach the benefit from the increased job market. The parents will have the funds needed to ensure that their children can access higher levels of education. Therefore, literacy levels are good indicators if government action on fighting school dropouts is solving the problem.
Poverty is a major issue affecting many households around the world. Precisely, poverty is one of the driving forces behind the deteriorating health outlook and reduced education levels among members of the society. Thus, it is one of the factors that people’s wellbeing deteriorates in a country. Tersely, one of the key indicators that can be used by the government to identify if the policy actions are working in reducing poverty is the happiness levels of the citizens (Potrich, Vieira, & Kirch, 2018). Precisely, most of the citizens suffer from unhappiness because of reduced wellbeing, which means if they are provided with the ideal means of fighting poverty, their happiness levels will increase. Moreover, other parameters include accessibility to services such as education and healthcare. If the government action is successful, more people will be able to access critical services.
Question Three
The first argument asserts that the greater the cost of an alternative, the less likely it is that the alternatives will be pursued. However, a rebuttal can be constructed to state that the more costly an alternative, the more it is likely to pursued. The threat to internal validity used to construct is the instrumentation threat, which when applied in the appropriate manner will result in the desired outcomes. On this note, a policy may have various alternatives and all of them are likely to produce similar effects (Ampatzoglou et al., 2019). However, many instruments are used to identify the most viable instrument. Concisely, a government policy should not focus on the costs alone but its adaptability and suitability to the public. Therefore, some of the alternatives that have been identified as being very costly have the potential of being the most effective in meeting the goals of a policy or a government project.
According to the second argument, the enforcement of the maximum speed limit of 55 mph increases the costs of exceeding the speed limit. The constructed rebuttal of this argument is the enforcement of the maximum speed limit of 55 mph decreases the costs of exceeding the speed limit. Precisely, various policies require a certain approach to ensure that some of the decisions made are beneficial to the public. On this note, one threat to validity that could be used construct the rebuttal for the assertion is the mortality threat. Attrition is one of the factors that influences the outcomes of an action or a policy. If the action elicits high rate of attrition then outcome is altered. On this note, the policymakers may be faced with opposition because most people may view the speed limit as very slow (McKibben & Silva, 2016). Concisely, the policymakers may be forced to increase the speed limit to an acceptable one, which means that exceeding the speed limit of 55 mph will not be costly. Mortality risks is associated with the gradual change of actions of different activities and their impacts to the outcomes of a given policy. Mortality risk is associated with the perception of the citizens on the ideal speed limit.
The third argument asserts that the mileage death rate fell from 4.3 to 3.6 per 100 million miles after the implementation of the 55-mph speed limit. The rebuttal of this statement can be that the government does not have sufficient information that the reduction of the speed limit to 55 mph reduced the death rate in the country’s roads. The validity threat used to construct the rebuttal is the testing threat. Precisely, the initial implementation of actions of a policy are likely to have the desired outcomes since the citizens are aware of the implementation. The pretest in an action and outcome analysis may be misleading because people are more aware of what is being studied by the government. On this note, the people could have been influenced to drive more safely by other factors such as the information flow that the government had implemented the policy because of high death rates in roads (Brincks et al., 2018). Although the enforcement of the speed limit has the potential to reduce the death rates, other factors can contribute to positive outcomes of the implement policy.
The fourth argument is that the 55-mph speed has been definitely successful in saving lives. The rebuttal to this statement is that the death rates through traffic accidents have reduced although it cannot be attributed only to the enforcement of the 55-mph speed limit. The validity threat in this case is historical threat. Historical threat suggest that other events could influence the outcome other the intervention. Since the law were put into effect in 1973, other developments have been introduced that have improved road safety exponentially. For instance, the introduction of high-performance vehicles has reduced road accidents significantly. Moreover, car manufacturers have enhanced the safety standards while the government has put into place stringent regulations regarding the manufacturing of motor vehicles. The people who use the American roads have also been accessing information on how to augment their safety when driving in the country’s roads (Linden, 2017). Therefore, historical threat indicates that there is a myriad of events that could have reduced the death rate due to traffic accidents.
Concisely, it would not be right to indicate that the enforcement of the speed limit law was singularly responsible for the reduced death rates. However, it is a fact that the law has also reduced the number of deaths associated with speeding. A significant number of accidents and associated facilities are attributed to speeding. The implementation of the law means that the ideal outcomes were achieved. However, there is a need to put into consideration other historical events that could have led to the reduced deaths in American highways and roads such as improved manufacturing technologies and augmented flow of information.
References
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Brincks, A., Montag, S., Howe, G. W., Huang, S., Siddique, J., Ahn, S., ... & Brown, C. H. (2018). Addressing methodologic challenges and minimizing threats to validity in synthesizing findings from individual-level data across longitudinal randomized trials. Prevention Science , 19 (1), 60-73.
Cahyo, H. (2016). Analysis of Economic Performance as the Independence Indicators of Government in East Java Province. Review of Integrative Business and Economics Research , 5 (2), 272-285.
Lewis, J. M. (2019). Performance indicators and democracy: citizens’ views on the purposes of government websites. Public Money & Management , 39 (1), 18-25.
Linden, A. (2017). Persistent threats to validity in single‐group interrupted time series analysis with a cross over design. Journal of evaluation in clinical practice , 23 (2), 419-425.
McKibben, W. B., & Silvia, P. J. (2016). Inattentive and socially desirable responding: Addressing subtle threats to validity in quantitative counseling research. Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation , 7 (1), 53-64.
Potrich, A. C. G., Vieira, K. M., & Kirch, G. (2018). How well do women do when it comes to financial literacy? Proposition of an indicator and analysis of gender differences. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance , 17 , 28-41.
Schmid, T., Bruckschen, F., Salvati, N., & Zbiranski, T. (2017). Constructing sociodemographic indicators for national statistical institutes by using mobile phone data: estimating literacy rates in Senegal. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society) , 180 (4), 1163-1190.
