Living in the United States has varying benefits which cannot be measured, but rather the experiences provide a substantial benefit, while in others negative association. The police as the antenna for the law ensure that it is followed to the letter and when they perceive that a person is acting on the contrary, then they are allowed to arrest them. However, the rate at which law enforcement is conducted is not the same for every race. Africans Americans complain that the law seems to be against them as they compromise the highest population facing multiple arrests; both perceived, actual bias or actual arrest. With these arrests, there are corresponding psychological implications that fall on people both at the individual level and community level.
To understand the background of the situation concerning African Americans and law enforcement, Najdowski, Bottoms, and Goff (2015), studied the perception that African Americans have when they encounter a law enforcement officer. The research published in law and behavior reveal that African Americans have negative conclusions once they are approached by a police officer. The research entailed a hundred participants. In the study, men were asked how they would feel when they are encountering a police officer unexpectedly in the middle of the night as they were taking a walk. The results were striking as twenty seven percent of black men report that they expect the police officer to profile them as criminals while only three percent of white men did. Hypothetically speaking the research details out how prevalent the situation is among the African American community. One black man states that he would feel that police would suspect him and even go to the extent of answering the questions because they are black.
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Adjustment Disorders
While most researches have been dedicated to what causes wrongful convictions, researches notably from psychology have dedicated a considerable amount of time to study the effect of law enforcement profiling against the African American community. A study carried out by Campbell and Denov (2004), identified that the burden of innocence is mostly felt by African Americans who are coping with wrongful imprisonment. The study was carried out through in depth interviews with five wrongfully convicted Canadian criminals. Among the study, the sample was four black men with only white men. The subjects state that prior to the arrests they were victims of tunnel vision and institutional misconduct. Among the challenges they encountered while trying to cope with the system include cooperation, withdrawal, preoccupation and rejection of the labeled criminal. While it is expected that in prison good conduct should be maintained, three prisoners state that it is perceived by the prison administration to be a high risk of recidivism.
In his book Remembering Trauma, McNally (2003) states that adjustment disorders are very common among individuals and are characterized by the development of emotional and behavioral symptoms in response to a specific stressor. Upon their release, the convicts state that their life functioning has been disrupted to a great extent. One of the respondents states that while trying to fit in the community, changing people’s perceptions is one of the greatest challenges and if one fails then depression is the greatest effect.
To echo these sentiments, Grounds (2011) conducted a study to understand the consequences of wrongful actions of the law on Africans. His research was descriptive and consisted of eighteen men who were on parole. The men were referred for psychiatric assessment. Among the men studied, sixteen were from the United Kingdom while the other two from different jurisdictions. The assessment was measured through the ICD tool, measured on a scale of one to ten ‘for enduring personality change following catastrophic experience’. Results from the study reveal evidence of psychiatric morbidity. Fourteen men scored ten on the ICD. On another scale, they were measured to meet the criteria for post traumatic disorder where twelve of them proved right. There were major problems noticed from the victims as most of them state that their problems range from psychological to social adjustment.
Grounds (2011), discusses what is likely to have triggered the problems. He argues that miscarriage of justice is the leading cause of the problem. The indictment follows that they are unable to relate to other people. This is because they fear what other people are thinking of them, regardless whether other people initiate the conversation. Long term imprisonment also contributes to the factor since ten of the men state that it changed their view of people. This is because in the prison every convict is subject to safeguarding own trust. Thus, nobody gives a fellow person full reception without watching owns back. Grounds (2011) identifies that the longer an individual is in custody, the longer the case of social detachment.
Stress and Stress Relate Disorder
Serving in prison without having committed a crime is perceived as one of the worst forms of victimization. The pain and the challenge experienced are similar to that experienced by war veterans. Being in prison is parallel to being at the core of physical and ammunition encounter. The mental health damage that is brought upon these people is not easy to fathom states Grounds (2011). He seeks to describe the anger that is felt by exonerates. This is because they have lost a significant portion of their time and opportunities. Further, Mingus and Burchfield (2012) identify that despite the problems that wrongful convicts face, their families consequently suffer. Thus, wrongful convictions do not only affect registered individuals. While they experience stress related issues, their families also experience this challenge. Approximately eighty percent of the sample study involving sixty family members state that they experience stress cause by the registry.
After prison, the stress of wrongful convicts does not come to haul. In his study, Scott (2010) examines sixteen exonerates in life after prison. The sample study had to meet the criteria of serving up to twelve years in prison. One of the exonerate witness state that the wrongful conviction placed a scar that he constantly wears. He later committed suicide four years later after walking into oncoming traffic. His mother attributes his suicide to his inability of being able to adjust to the outside life. Another challenge that cumulates the stress level is their inability of associating with their friends and families. Scott (2010) states that exonerates struggle to build relationships that they had with family members before conviction. This is contributed by the considerable amount of time they spend in prison which makes them accustomed to the system making it a link of the chain in their lives.
Stigmatization
In additional to the typical wrongful convictions, those labeled especially as sex offenders are subject to stigma. As of 2009, the sex offenders registry, list more than half a million of United States citizens as sex offenders. The stigmatization that emanates from being labeled as a sex offender while in the actual sense one has not committed the crime is a huge problem that exonerates experience. In a study by Mingus and Burchfield (2012), those wrongfully convicted of crimes relating to sexual offenses believe that the society will discriminate and devalue due to their registered status. Another challenge that they believe that they will experience is withdrawing their lives from the community. Eight out of the twenty three men studied assert that they will be subjected to withdraw from the community. This is because they do not want to live in a community where they are not welcomed. Twelve men state that the will be forced to keep the issue a secret once they relocate to a different community. Mingus & Burchfield (2012) discusses as one of the reasons that thy will keep the issue a secret is because they do not want the new community to stigmatize them further: brought about by the belief that recidivism rate of sex offenders is high.
Impact on self-concept and reputation
In a different context, those who are subject of wrongful convictions and later been declared not guilt felt that others are skeptical and convinced of their guilt. In a study conducted by Garlad (2011), nineteen participants claim that the experience an extreme character change. Susannah, one of the subjects, states that one is longer herself, but is something so nasty. He describes this change as an imposed, involuntary and reactive change. Ten women state that they develop unwelcoming behaviors such as hostility. Upon asking information, answers or contact from authorities, they were perceived as angry, critical and stubborn. Upon inquiry, whether they would want to participate in social development projects with the community, participants prove that it is not possible since there is no balance of trust between them and the community members.
Paranoia, Anxiety, and Mistrust
Moreover, a study was conducted by Fridley (2011), to describe feelings and behavior suggestive of paranoia and anxiety. The study involved a sample study of eighteen men from Illinois who believe they have been wrongly convicted for offenses they have not convicted. Ninety percent claim that whenever they are in public, they experience “weird horror”. Weird horror in this context refers to anxiety and paranoia and the panic of whether those around them knew of their allegations. Whether they will say anything or judge them. Similarly, those who know of the situation as paranoia cannot seem to help the situation. In a similar vein, fifty percent of the sample study claims that with a constant vigilance that the community directs toward them, their self-confidence is also affected. One of the participant states that among the challenges that he experiences is scaling his level of confidence.
Depression
After facing time in jail, many ex-convicts suffer from a myriad of events. Among the problems experienced include loss of work or unemployment, loss of families and friends, loss of trust but to name a few. With these challenges, there is a registered level of depression. In a study by Schultz (2012), sixteen volunteers state that they have suffered on several accounts from depression. Eight participants express suggestive conditions of depression. This is further evident with their associated behavior such as rapid weight loss and suicidal thoughts. In line with this, eight participants admitted contemplating suicide.
From the studies above, the fact of the issue is that with such perceived bias of law enforcement in the African American community there are various implications, psychological. The findings provide strong, however preliminary, evidence that blacks have different experiences from the whites.
References
Campbell, K. & Denov, M. (2004). The Burden of Innocence: Coping With a Wrongful Imprisonment. Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice. 58.3. 322-353. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.46.2.139
Davis, J.E. (2005) Victims Narratives and Victims Selves: False Memory Syndrome and the Power of Accounts. Journal of psychology, 16.2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000140
Findley, K.A. (2011) Defining Innocence. Albany Law Review, 74.3. 1157-1163. Retrieved from http://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=themis
Garlad, D (2008). On The Concept Of Moral Panic, Crime, Media, Culture. 4, 1. Retrieved from http://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/on-the-concept-of-moral-panic(3ebb3192-88c9-4361-b45a-b6a2bd9102bc)/export.html
Grounds, A. (2011) Psychological Consequences of Wrongful Conviction and Imprisonment. Canada Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice. 46.2, 31-319: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.46.2.165
McNally, R.J. (2003) Remembering Trauma. Harvard University Press.
Mingus, W. & Burchfield, K.B. (2012). From Prison to Integration: Applying Modified Labeling Theory to Sex Offenders . Psychology studies, 25.1, 97-109. Retrieved from http://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=themis
Najdowski, C.J., Bottoms, B.L. & Gofff, A. P. (2015). Stereotype Threat and Racial Differences in Citizens’ Experiences of Police Encounters. American Psychological Association39.5, 463-477. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000140
Schultz, C. (2012). The Stigmatization Of Individuals Convicted Of Sex Offenses: Labeling Theory And The Sex Offenses Registry . Journal of Psychology. 2.1, 1-20. Retrived from http://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/themis/?utm_source=scholarworks.sjsu.edu%2Fthemis%2Fvol2%2Fiss1%2F4&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
Scott, L (2010). “It Never, Ever Ends”: The Psychological Impact Of Wrongful Conviction” American University Criminal Law Brief 5, 2. 10-22. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1063&context=clb
