Psychology is an applied science that helps create solutions in the society. Notably, it is instrumental in understanding crime and creating strategies to prevent it. This field of study establishes theories that explain why people commit crimes. Furthermore, psychology works with accused persons and the affected to ensure that the crime does not occur again. As expected, these theories vary and share similarities that influence the prevention approach. Therefore, as a scholar, it is important to explore the theories explaining various crimes in a bid to determine how psychologists can control the action against humanity. Specifically, this research focuses on the psychology theories that explain rape and how they are effective in preventing it.
Rape is defined as vaginal or anal penetration absent consent (Blake, & Gannon, 2015). However, jurisdictions across the world differ in their description of consent, the object of penetration, gender penetration, and the term victim. Consequently, western laws add that if a woman gives consent under duress it is still rape. The Indian laws add that the act of penetration after consent from an individual of unsound mind is still rape. From these definitions, the several types of rape include penetrative rape where the vagina is penetrated by the penis, fingers or foreign objects, statutory rape which occurs when the penis does not penetrate the vagina but touches it, marital rape, date rape which defines rape during a platonic relationship between a man and a woman and the man is intoxicated, gang rapes, and male rape where a man rapes another man.
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According to recent statistics from the Uniform Crime Report, there were 90,185 rapes reported to police in the last year. In the same year, the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) found that 431,840 rapes occurred and were not reported to the police. More date shows that 1in every 5 women and 1 in every 71 men experienced attempted or completed rape in 2015 ( Zurbriggen) . The statistics on rape greatly vary from organization to organization. This disparity is often a result of differences in the definition of rape, varying wording of survey questions and lack of consensus on the best way to measure rape as well. Based on the Federal Bureau of Investigation, it is a great concern that 21.8% of rape cases are gang rapes. Also, it is alarming that almost half of the reported rapes occur among students. In fact, the statistics add up to 5,130,004 student victims versus 8,614,853 non-student rapes ( Marshall, Laws, & Barbaree, 2013) . The most shocking fact is that rape is the most under-reported crime and there is evidence to support the fact that police undercount rapes on the official records to create the illusion of success in reducing rape cases in their community.
Evidently, women are the largest demographic of rape victims. It is estimated that more than 17.7million women have fallen victim to attempted or completed rape. Based on this number it is believed that 7 out of every 8 rape victims are women. Notably, 80% of female rape victims are white. However, women from minority groups are at a greater risk of rape compared to white women. Contrary to popular beliefs, 66% of rape victims know their assailants and most rape cases occur in the victim’s home ( Moorti, 2012) . Additionally, a majority of the victims are under 30 years of age while an overwhelming 44% of rape victims are under 18 years old. Overwhelmingly, sex offenders are 90% white males. In communities where sexual offenses are not persecuted men are more likely to repeatedly commit sexual assault. Sex offenders are also experts at rationalizing their behavior. With these facts in mind, it is crucial to mention that there is no ‘typical profile’ for a rapist.
Psychological theories
Biological theory
One psychological theory of rape is the biological theory. In this school of thought, it believed that men rape for reproductive success. Men can make children more easily compared to women. Consequently, women are selective about who they have a family with. With this logic in mind, it is believed that men forcefully have sex with women to increase their reproductive success especially if they feel rejected or find a desirable mate ( Leiner et al., 2012) . This theory openly suggests that rape helps men circumvent the mate choice adaptation in women that leads them to selectmen with specific attributes such as height, good posture, and attractive physical features.
The biological theory sparks controversy among scholars for various reasons. Notably, it explains why men are the primary offenders and also addresses why rapists often attack women they know and have interacted with. However, many criticize this theory because it exempts the offender from responsibility. The biological theory emphasizes rape as an innate instinct and shows the offender has no control over his desires and actions towards the victim. Additionally, it does not help the victim understand what happened to them and how they can move on past it. The theory narrows rape down to an instinct as a result of evolution.
Developmental theory
The main argument in this theory is that rape-prone men have such tendencies as a result of developmental events of learning. It indicates that the offenders commit this violent act because the come from harsh backgrounds that emphasized coercion, manipulation, and violence as acceptable ways to conduct relationships ( Dar ‐ Nimrod, Heine, Cheung, & Schaller, 2011) . There are two interacting pathways that further this theory. One is the impersonal sex pathway where an individual is introduced to sex at a young age, has delinquent peers and many sexual partners. The second pathway is the hostile masculinity pathway where a man is insecure in their masculinity and uses forced sex as a way to gain control of the opposite sex.
This theory is appreciated because it gives an evolutionary perspective of the rape mentality in male offenders. It introduces the idea of environmental influence which supports the statistic that 60% of rapists were probably abused or introduced to sex at an early age. It holds the society accountable as well as the individual. Evidently, parents or guardians must take responsibility for the children’s upbringing. Similarly, the individual must remain aware of the toxic nature of their upbringing and strive to make decisions that are right and morally acceptable.
Commodification theory
This theory addresses rape as a crime of property. Thus, sex is viewed as a commodity that rapists steal from women. Today’s culture completely detaches sex and intimacy. As much as people discuss the act, they are unable to realize the connection between two people having sex. However, it is repeatedly discussed as an object that is flaunted to appease others and grant status. Companies advertise all male products with a sexual element that detaches the emotional aspect of sex ( Ullman, 2013) . Therefore, when men take away this ‘commodity,’ they do not feel guilty because to them it is just some form of property.
The commodification theory supports the notion why men make up the largest group of rapists. It emphasizes the idea that a rapist culture is created when marketers repeatedly use sex and women as an object of fantasy and easy to acquire or use. Also, it creates a clear picture that explains why the younger generation under 30 years old is reporting increased rape cases ( Britt, & Gottfredson, 2011) . They are the most targeted population by-products that attach sex to sales. Thus, the commodification theory provides a foundation to find solutions to this problem.
Ideally, the commodification theory best explains rape and why it happens. Its strongest argument is that sex is treated as an object so often that rapist does not account for the emotional or intimacy damage the cause in a victim. As long as the rapist can detach the intimate, they easily take what does not belong to them from women. This theory is supported by the developmental theory in that men look at sex as a commodity because that is what the learned from their families, peers, and advertisers from a very young age.
The commodification theory help predicts rape cases in that individuals from societies that commodify sex are likely to rape. Also, it offers a prediction that the more products advertisements, video games and other media outlets are allowed to objectify women the rape culture will definitely continue. In this regard, the commodification theory also offers solutions that are practical in the community. It identifies the need to talk about sex on an intimate level to children and adults of all ages. People must understand that sex is more than the act. Also, it prompts the society to hold the media accountable for their role in promoting rape culture. It is time to show women as more than just attractive sexual objects.
In conclusion, rape is an act against both men and women. The first step is getting the conversation started. Creating awareness of the statistics of the crime and the psychology behind it challenges individuals to evaluate themselves. This self-reflection eliminates myths that support rape and create a stigma around victims such that they cannot report their experiences. Evidently, change will take a community effort and the desired result is not possible unless people are educated on the matter first.
References
Blake, E., & Gannon, T. A. (2015). The implicit theories of rape-prone men: An information-processing investigation: International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology.
Brenner, A. (2013). Resisting simple dichotomies: critiquing narratives of victims, perpetrators, and harm in feminist theories of rape. Harv. JL & Gender , 36 , 503.
Britt, C. L., & Gottfredson, M. R. (Eds.). (2011). Control theories of crime and delinquency (Vol. 1): Transaction Publishers.
Dar ‐ Nimrod, I., Heine, S. J., Cheung, B. Y., & Schaller, M. (2011). Do scientific theories affect men's evaluations of sex crimes? Aggressive behavior .
Leiner, A. S., Kearns, M. C., Jackson, J. L., Astin, M. C., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2012). Avoidant coping and treatment outcome in rape-related posttraumatic stress disorder: Journal of consulting and clinical psychology .
Marshall, W. L., Laws, D. R., & Barbaree, H. E. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of sexual assault: Issues, theories, and treatment of the offender : Springer Science & Business Media.
Moorti, S. (2012). Color of rape: Gender and race in television's public spheres : SUNY Press. Moorti, S. (2012). Color of rape: Gender and race in television's public spheres : SUNY Press.
Ullman, S. E. (2013). Talking about sexual assault: Society's response to survivors : American Psychological Association.
Zurbriggen, E. L. (2015). Rape, war, and the socialization of masculinity: Why our refusal to give up war ensures that rape cannot be eradicated. Psychology of Women Quarterly .
