Question 1
Psychology abnormality is a branch of psychology which is used to study the various patterns of behaviour construed as unusual. The branch also considers emotions and thought processes which may ultimately cause a change or discordance in the behaviour of a person and result in the development of mental disorders within an individual. The branch is characterised by four themes (Hundert, 1972). When assessing the behaviours, emotions and thoughts of different individuals, psychologists utilize several themes/tools in order to better identify abnormal behaviour. These themes are deviance, distress, dysfunction and danger.
The term deviance is used to describe any such behaviour that is exhibited by an individual which largely contradicts or goes against social norms. In explaining deviance, Sigmund Freud gave the example of a child. Children will get to the point where they are developing behaviour that is disturbing and causes them to act in a certain manner. For instance, children may want to scream if they are denied their favourite toy, throw their toys and so forth (Hundert, 1972). However, in adult’s, a person’s behaviour is termed as deviant where they are unable to control personality disturbances which cause them to direct antisocial impulses outward through criminal activities.
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Distress is a term which is used to describe feelings or emotions a person is experiencing which are unpleasant. These feelings or emotions may be as a result of psychological, social and/or spiritual interferences within a person’s life. A person who is experiencing these emotions/feelings may be unable to cope with certain situations, hence experiencing a psychological abnormality (Rosenhan & Seligman, 1995). A person may be in distress over losing a loved one and hence they will be distant, mourn the death of the loved one, and be in emotional distress for a few weeks or months. However, the concern is raised where they begin to alienate themselves, are unable to cope with the loss of the loved one, continually think about the person lost for a very long period of time, blame themselves and contemplate suicide. In this event, the behaviour is termed as abnormal.
A dysfunction in psychology is said to occur where a process or part of a process within a person’s mind or body is unable to function at full capacity or has difficulty functioning. Due to the abnormal functioning of this process, a person may be unable to commence with the daily procedures they are used to and be so confused that they are unable to care for themselves properly (Rosenhan & Seligman, 1995). A behaviour is said to be dysfunctional when it is directly affecting the health and mental operation of an individual. For instance, where a person is unable to eat due to the fear that they will grow fat, hence they end up starving themselves, or puking everything they eat; this behaviour is dysfunctional.
In psychology, behaviour that is dysfunctional and may ultimately cause harm to an individual or to others is termed as dangerous (Rosenhan & Seligman, 1995). Dangerous behaviour is not accidental but is marked by a sequence, or pattern of previous behaviours which are considered careless, hostile, misinterpreted or lacking good judgement (Rosenhan & Seligman, 1995). For instance, the previous example of a person being too concerned with getting fat that they place little emphasis on maintaining a healthy diet. This, in turn, may endanger other people if they are also under their care.
These four themes in psychology are all important as they provide professionals with a basis on how to grade different behaviours to determine whether it is normal or abnormal. Abnormal behaviour is largely considered to be that which causes discomfort, appears to be weird and has the ability to create a distraction or upset people (Rosenhan & Seligman, 1995). However, not all behaviour which exhibits these characteristics is construed as abnormal.
Question 2
There are various models which seek to explain abnormality in behaviour. The first is the biological model of abnormality (Comer, 2015). In this model, the belief is that any abnormality that is observed in a person that ultimately alters the normal functioning of that individual can be traced back to their biological make-up, that is their genes, anatomy or biochemistry (Comer, 2015). The theory believes that there is always a physical explanation which can explain any abnormal behaviour in an individual.
The second is the behavioural model of abnormality. In this model, psychologists believe that all behaviour is learnt from the environment. A person interacts with various persons within their environment, they have the ability to learn the behaviour they see in their surrounding and hence, all behaviour whether good or bad is as a result of learning (Comer, 2015). The theory continues to state that even abnormal behaviour is learnt, and hence, when a person’s environment is altered, then they are able to change the behaviour of the person.
The third behavioural model is the psychodynamic model of abnormality. In this model, a person is believed to develop abnormal behaviours due to a clash in the various personalities within that person. Sigmund Freud described three personalities of an individual, the id, ego and superego (Comer, 2015). The id is the personality which is innate and self-preserving, the ego is the part of an individual which is realistic, and the superego is the part of an individual that is made up by learned rules or conscience. The psychodynamic theory thus suggests that a clash in these three personalities results in abnormal behaviour (Comer, 2015).
The fourth is the cognitive models of abnormality. Psychologists believe that a person’s thoughts are responsible for their behaviour. A person goes through various experiences in their lifetime. As a result, they develop various thoughts with reference to the experiences that they have encountered (Comer, 2015). In response to these experiences, when they are faced with them, they choose a certain behaviour that is best matched with that experience. In this theory, it is important to consider the manner in which people view different experiences, and their mental health (Comer, 2015). Where a person has a bad thought, they may behave irrationally.
The fifth model of abnormality is the humanistic model. This model states that all human beings behave in a manner that is normal, natural, rational and sensible. When viewing behaviour, it should not be viewed from the perspectives of others, rather, it should be viewed from the perspective of the person who is behaving in that manner. Essentially, the theory states that there is no such thing as an abnormal behaviour or abnormality (Comer, 2015). Every behaviour has a reason and would make sense when it is viewed from the perspective of the person who is doing the behaviour.
The sixth model of abnormality is the sociocultural model. The model suggests that different people are raised from different social backgrounds. In each of these societies, there are specific cultures that are followed. Where people’s beliefs and norms are exerted on others, then the development of specific types of behaviour is observed (Comer, 2015). Where these cultures and social contexts are stressful, a person may develop certain disorders as a result of these disorders (L D Eron & Peterson, 1982). For example, in earlier generations, children born with deformities were seen as curses, however, currently, they are viewed as normal beings and treated for what would have caused their exclusion from society in an earlier time.
The biopsychosocial model of abnormality is also one to consider when explaining abnormality. The model states that in determining the cause of an abnormal behaviour, one cannot focus on only one element as there is too much to consider, hence, there is a need to examine the biological, psychological and social factors which may be affecting the individual and spurring the abnormal behaviour (Comer, 2015). These examinations will ultimately provide an avenue for the psychologists to determine where the disorder is occurring and how it can be fixed (Comer, 2015). The biopsychosocial model is said to be most effective as it utilizes various areas of an individual’s life. It analyses the different components that may be complimenting each other and ultimately resulting in the development of an abnormal behaviour. All the elements in these model ultimately have an effect on the other (Comer, 2015). Biology has the ability to affect psychology, and an alteration in alteration could affect social well-being, social well-being can, in turn, affect biology. Hence with these model, a psychologist is able to best describe the main cause of an abnormal behaviour and how it is affecting other areas of the person’s life for them to behave in a certain manner.
Question 3
A:
In a preliminary clinical interview with a patient at a mental health clinic, it would be important to collect demographic information relating to the patient. Their name, marital status, religion and other details that fall under this category. This would ensure that the clinic developed a file for the patient serving the time and purpose of their visit. Details of the patient’s medical history would also be important. Prior to diagnosing the patient, it is important to understand the history of the patient and the various mental health issues the patient may have been treated prior. This will also ensure that there is a relationship between the previous treatments and current treatments and how they have affected the delivery of service to the patient.
Information regarding the patient’s current condition would also be collected during this period. The patient would have come to the clinic for a purpose, hence, it is important to collect details on how the patient is fairing on and what seems to be the problem. This information would form the initial report and symptoms reported at the beginning of the treatment period and how they have impacted the patient’s life.
The last information to be collected during this period is the contact person of the patient. Mental care patients have to be well taken care of and continuously supported, hence, within the first thirty minutes, it would be important to collect information pertaining to the next of kin of the patient and how they are to be assisted in an emergency.
B.
A lecture that is issued to people has to assume that the people have very little working knowledge of the components of the lecture. For this reasons, a lecture on the DSM-5 has commenced by first stating the definition of DSM-5. It is an abbreviation for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. It is a handbook which is used by healthcare professionals in order as the authoritative guide to the diagnosis of mental disorders. The handbook is currently being used in the United States and much of the world as it provides a general and common language for clinicians to be able to communicate and understand their patients and provide a proper diagnosis. The Handbook has been reviewed and revised since its first publication in 1952. Due to the development of new research and knowledge areas about mental disorders, there has been a need to incorporate new information into the handbook as years pass (Regier, Kuhl & Kupfer, 2013). As a result, there are several issues of the handbook, with the latest handbook being number 5, hence, DSM-5.
After describing the definition of DSM-5, the different characteristics of the handbook would be listed. The first characteristic would be how it differs from the other versions of the handbook released. The DSM-IV-TR is the previous versions and each had a different though the similar manner in which they defined and classified the different sets of mental disorders (Regier et al., 2013). Another point to consider during the lecture would be on where the current information and knowledge provided in the handbook was gathered. There have been many developments and advancements in the medical field, hence a new characteristic would be on the source of information.
A third point to consider would be on the content, what is the format provided for the classification of mental disorders within the handbook. How do they bring out the manner in which clinicians are to address these disorders and how are the mental disorders arranged within the book. It is vital to ensure that people are aware of the arrangement of the book and how it impacts the overall success of the DSM-5. The handbook is also a product of not only one organization but many worldwide organizations which continue to study the impact of mental disorders, hence it has information from various sources and countries acting as a unifying force for all nations in the fight against mental disorders. These are the main points that would be tackled under characteristics of the DSM-5.
Question 4
PART A:
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
When trying to understand the Generalized Anxiety Disorder, it is important to first consider what a person fears and that which can make them anxious. GAD is a disorder which sees a person worry excessive and unrealistically about nearly everything. Not all situations make them anxious hence it is important to determine which situations trigger worry in them (Newman, Shin & Zuellig, 2016). The second factor to consider is the timeline which this anxiety disorder began to show. To understand how long a person has been suffering from GAD will aid in determining the third factor, which is what happened around that particular period of time which may have triggered the condition. Once you have identified these three factors, then it is easy to understand GAD in an individual.
Panic Disorder
To understand the panic disorder, a person may require determining the family history. In some cases, a family may have a history of panic disorder which may ultimately affect an individual (Rapee, 1993). The second factor is considering a recent major stress that may have occurred. In order to identify the development of a panic disorder, determining a change in a person’s life that triggered panic disorder may help in understanding the condition; and the third factor to consider is a traumatic event. Investigating whether a person recently underwent a traumatic event will ensure a person is able to trace the origin of the panic disorder and treat the patient accordingly (Rapee, 1993).
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
To understand this, it is important to identify the actions one obsesses over and why they do so. To understand OCD, it is important to determine which action most affects a person. The second factor is to consider how frequent a person repeats the said action (Murphy, Timpano, Wheaton, Greenberg & Miguel, 2010). OCD is comprised of the repetitive obsessive behaviours which cause a significant amount of distress. The last factor to consider is the timeline when the disorder began to manifest and what was the trigger behind the manifestation (Murphy et al., 2010).
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
PTSD is a mental health condition that is triggered by a terrifying event, hence when understanding it, a person should consider the event which triggered PTSD. The second factor to consider is how the disorder manifests in a person, whether through flashbacks, anxiety, nightmares, uncontrollable thoughts and so forth. The third factor to consider in understanding PTSD is on how it has impacted the person’s ability to cope with day-to-day activities (“Understanding Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) | Lindner Center of HOPE,” n.d.). In severe cases, PTSD may have severe mental dysfunctionality in an individual hence, one must understand its limitations.
Somatic Symptom Disorder
In order to understand SSD, it is important to consider how a person contracts SSD, hence learning the current medical condition of an individual is essential. The second factor to consider is its involvement in family history. SSD can be present where the family of an individual has a strong history of the disease. The third factor to consider is how it manifests after a traumatic event has occurred. It is also triggered by such events and hence to understand it, one must also consider the manner in which it manifests.
Dissociative Identity Disorder
In understanding DID, it is important to consider the various altars that are created by an individual in order to cope with a given situation. The second factor to consider is how these alter work together in order to develop a system which results in the development of the disorder. The third factor to consider is the number of personalities or hosts which a person can develop as a result of the DID (Gillig, 2009).
Major Depressive Disorder
MDD is a type of depression. When trying to understand it, one must first consider the other types of depression and identify how they differentiate from MDD. After this identification, it is important to consider the reasons behind the development of the disorder and how it can be handled by an individual.
Bipolar Disorder
In order to understand bipolar disorder, a person must consider whether a person has ever experienced a manic or hypomanic episode in the past. In identifying this, then it is vital to consider the genetics of a person and whether other families have experienced the same. From these, one also has to consider stress as a factor in understanding the disorder and how this can affect an individual and lastly stress and functions.
PART B:
Shneidman provided four categories of suicide. These are the death seekers who try to end their lives at the time of suicide and are sure to succeed in the endeavour as they select the surest methods of suicide. However, their minds often change and are quite uncertain in most cases, or certain of suicide in others (Leenaars, 2010). The second category is death initiators, these are persons who are old or elderly and have a clear intention to end their life. Unlike the death seekers, they already believe death is coming and so wish to rush the process along. Death ignores are people who believe in the concept of the afterlife and hence do not believe that death is the end of their existence. In many cases, these people believe that their death will bring about a happier existence (Leenaars, 2010). Sometimes, a person may be I this category where they want to see a dead family friend or relative. The last category of suicide is the death of darers. These are people who are completely unsure about suicide. They may show this uncertainty even while threatening to commit suicide and often select options which may not yield death. They may seek other distractive methods such as calling someone or coming up with a way in which they can be stopped from committing suicide.
Shneidman believed that suicide could be prevented through the development of the following ten commonalities:
A program of support of suicide-prevention activities in many communities throughout the Nation.
2. A special program for the “gatekeepers” of suicide prevention.
3. A carefully prepared program in massive public education.
4. A special program for follow-up of suicide attempts.
5. An active NIMH program of research and training grants.
6. A redefinition and refinement of statistics on suicide.
7. The development of a cadre of trained, dedicated professionals.
8. Government-wide liaison and national use of a broad spectrum of professional personnel.
9. A special follow-up for the survivor-victims of individuals who have committed suicide
10. A rigorous program for the evaluation of the effectiveness of suicide-prevention activities. (Leenaars, 2010).
References
Comer, R. J. (2015). Abnormal Psychology . Worth Publishers. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.ke/books?id=GpSbBgAAQBAJ
Gillig, P. M. (2009). Dissociative identity disorder: A controversial diagnosis. Psychiatry (Edgmont) , 6 (3), 24.
Hundert, E. (1972). History, psychology, and the study of deviant behavior.
L D Eron, & Peterson, and R. A. (1982). Abnormal Behavior: Social Approaches. Annual Review of Psychology , 33 (1), 231–264. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.33.020182.001311
Leenaars, A. A. (2010). Edwin S. Shneidman on suicide. Suicidology Online , 1 (1), 5–18.
Murphy, D. L., Timpano, K. R., Wheaton, M. G., Greenberg, B. D., & Miguel, E. C. (2010). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and its related disorders: a reappraisal of obsessive-compulsive spectrum concepts. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience , 12 (2), 131.
Newman, M. G., Shin, K. E., & Zuellig, A. R. (2016). Developmental risk factors in generalized anxiety disorder and panic disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders , 206 , 94–102.
Rapee, R. M. (1993). Psychological factors in panic disorder. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy , 15 (1), 85–102.
Regier, D. A., Kuhl, E. A., & Kupfer, D. J. (2013). The DSM-5: Classification and criteria changes. World Psychiatry , 12 (2), 92–98. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20050
Rosenhan, D. L., & Seligman, M. E. (1995). Abnormal psychology . WW Norton & Co.
Understanding Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) | Lindner Center of HOPE. (2013). Retrieved May 30, 2018, from https://lindnercenterofhope.org/blog/understanding-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/
