Diamond-Smith, N., & Rudolph, K. (2018). The association between uneven sex ratios and violence: Evidence from 6 Asian countries. PloS one , 13 (6), e0197516.
Diamond-Smith and Rudolph attribute the increase in female rape cases to uneven sex ratios in many societies. The study makes use of data that is obtained from research conducted on men from six different Asian countries. Moreover, the authors combine the information collected from the chosen Asian nations with region and age precise sex ratios in census data to determine the link between sex ratios and sexual abuse. Asian countries are comprised of more men as compared to women. The study hypothesizes that uneven sex ratios result in social instability and extreme rates of sexual abuse against women.
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The lack of enough women makes it difficult for men to find marriage and sexual partners. Based on the obtained data, forty million Indian men and thirty-two million men in China are expected to remain single from the year 2020 to 2080. Moreover, rich men have a higher probability of acquiring brides while those from low social and financial backgrounds remain single. Undeniably, the fact that older men have already managed to build a firmer foundation for themselves means that they can be able to attain wives and mistresses, leaving young men with little opportunities to secure lifetime partners.
The inability to secure partners heightens strong competition, which is first reflected in young and single men who compete for the attention of the available women. Thereafter, the violence is directed to women since men are more likely to pay for sex or force themselves on women so that they can acquire this basic need. The article provides logical and well thought out arguments which can be used to test more hypotheses, to determine the primary drivers of sexual assault.
Kalra, G., & Bhugra, D. (2013). Sexual violence against women: Understanding cross-cultural intersections. Indian Journal of Psychiatry , 55 (3), 244.
The article examines the factors that drive sexual violence against young children and women. The authors attribute sexual violence to unequal power equations which are influenced dramatically by cultural factors and values. The evolutionary psychology framework assigns the increased sexual abuse in young and adult females to the high numbers of men as opposed to women, in many societies. There is a gender imbalance in most societies. Apparently, this high male-female sex ratio heightens male competition for the available women. Evolutionary psychologists argue that these ratios augment sexual jealousy and frustration, which drives sexual violence.
The evolutionary psychology framework perceives sexual violence as an approach used by men to reinforce the sexual fidelity of their partners. Nonetheless, the theory can only be applied to interrelationship sexual vehemence since it focusses on fidelity, which exists just in the relationship context. The main limitation of this hypothesis is that it fails to explain the upsurge in childhood abuse, where there is no fidelity in question. The article is significant because it gives valid arguments as to why men rape young children and women. In addition, it also provides quality arguments that can be used as the basis for more research on the issue of rape in contemporary society.
McPhail, B. A. (2016). Feminist framework plus: Knitting feminist theories of rape etiology into a comprehensive model. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse , 17 (3), 314-329.
McPhail employs evolutionary psychology to identify the motives behind rape. Rape is perceived as an adaptive mating strategy used by men, to heighten their probabilities of reproductive success. Hence, all rape is sexually motivated. The article criticizes feminist’s arguments that abuse is an outcome of non-sexual motives like power and control.
Evolutionary theories are also used to examine various pathways to sexual promiscuity and unsympathetic masculinity which converges to spawn sexually belligerent behaviors. Nonetheless, it is argued that the activation of these pathways is reliant on the presence of various environments and experiences such as the abuse in childhood, as well as involvement in delinquent subcultures.
Additionally, McPhail contends that the deficiency of developed interpersonal skills and the lack of interest to establish affectionate-bonds with women is also a significant driver of rape. The main strength of the article is that it is guided by theoretical frameworks with experiential support. The information enables individuals to acknowledge the sexual nature of the majority of assaults which would make preventive educational programs more effective. Moreover, the arguments in the article allow sexual educators to know that their interventions remain futile when they acknowledge only the psychosomatic and physical realms while they remain ignorant of cultural factors that may motivate this heinous practice. McPhail’s work guides the development of effective rape preventive interventions.
Sarkar, J. (2013). Mental health assessment of rape offenders. Indian Journal of Psychiatry , 55 (3), 235.
Sakar conducts a mental health assessment of sexual offenders in India using evolutionary theories, among other frameworks and models, to determine the reasons that drive rape. Quantitative research methods such as personal interviews with sexual offenders are employed to arrive at valid conclusions. The results display that most offenders believe that women are always receptive to their sexual desires even if they are not always conscious of it. It is argued that men recognize this receptivity even when women do not verbally admit it. Furthermore, the interview results indicate a popular belief that women cannot be hurt by sex unless they are physically beaten or punched. Hence, rape is not really a crime unless women are physically beaten.
In addition, the research findings attributed rape to the heightened sexual energies in men who build up to extremely dangerous levels if they are not provided with sexual opportunities by women. The study also indicates that sexual offenders feel that they are entitled to sexual gratification without any hesitation from the female folk. The author attributes the feelings of entitlement to the increased cases of marital rape, especially if women come from coming from lower socioeconomic and caste statuses. The research is crucial for the determination of psychosocial factors that drive, retain, and propagate sexual abuse. Valuable information on the motives behind rape is provided, which can be used in future studies.
Schacht, R., Rauch, K. L., & Mulder, M. B. (2014). Too many men: the violence problem? Trends in Ecology & Evolution , 29 (4), 214-222.
Schacht, Rauch, and Mulder argue that rape is driven by the great men to women ratios in different societies globally. The authors focus on two countries which are Asia and China which apparently have the greatest numbers of men. It is argued that men are more than women due to the fact that parents fancy male children and daughter-biased abortions. Infanticide and neglect also account for the declining numbers of girls and women in the two countries. The authors give insight on the term sexual selection which essentially means that males should contend vigorously for the low mating chances when they are greater in numbers than women. Male-biased sexual ratios are therefore the leading cause of the prevalence of sexual abuse in the two study nations.
Schacht, Rauch, and Mulder use such as mathematics, social sciences, and sexual selection assumptions to base their arguments. Notably, theoretical and empirical reasons are given to support the argument that male mate competition is usually stronger when men are more in numbers. The study also incorporates the findings of various studies and police reports on rape cases in the US to reinforce its arguments. The main strength of the article is that it analyses the prevalence of sexual abuse in both low and high sex ratio conditions, despite the fact that the findings are somewhat mixed and unpatterned, which is a significant weakness.
Another core study flaw is that the authors use police reports and national statistics as the primary sources of data as opposed to using richer ethology. The article concludes that female-biased sex ratios are the key to decreasing sexual violence in male-dominated countries. Additionally, strict policies that detain the sexual offenders to discourage this dreadful act are also recommended. The information provided is not only relevant for the research but can also be used in hypothesis testing in other studies.
Van Vugt, M. (2017). Evolutionary psychology: theoretical foundations for the study of organizations. Journal of Organization Design , 6 (1), 9.
Van Vught gives a comprehensive introduction to evolutionary psychology and its significance in human life. Evolutionary psychology makes the assumption that an individual’s nature reflects adaptations to certain familial environments which are social but differ from contemporary organizations in both scale and intricacy. According to the theory, rape is an adaptation that allows men of low mate value to access female sexual partners.
Moreover, other evolutionary psychologists argue that rape is a byproduct of a general aggressive male tendency towards women. The article gives sound arguments to explain the motives behind rape. Nonetheless, the information cannot be entirely relied on since it focusses on the controversial arguments that have been raised by evolutionary psychologists on the issue of rape. Nonetheless, the few arguments that have been given can be subjected to more research.
References
Diamond-Smith, N., & Rudolph, K. (2018). The association between uneven sex ratios and violence: Evidence from 6 Asian countries. PloS one , 13 (6), e0197516.
Kalra, G., & Bhugra, D. (2013). Sexual violence against women: Understanding
cross-cultural intersections. Indian Journal of Psychiatry , 55 (3), 244.
McPhail, B. A. (2016). Feminist framework plus: Knitting feminist theories of rape etiology into a comprehensive model. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse , 17 (3), 314-329.
Sarkar, J. (2013). Mental health assessment of rape offenders. Indian journal of Psychiatry , 55 (3), 235.
Schacht, R., Rauch, K. L., & Mulder, M. B. (2014). Too many men: the violence problem?. Trends in Ecology & Evolution , 29 (4), 214-222.
Van Vugt, M. (2017). Evolutionary psychology: theoretical foundations for the study of organizations. Journal of Organization Design , 6 (1), 9.
