Although the primary roots of psychology are philosophy and physical science, the relationship between philosophy and psychology is always evasive. People may fail to identify the relationship between the two subjects due to the difficulties in uncovering the hidden philosophical assumptions and frameworks that offer a foundation for various psychological theories. The effective subjection of theories in behavioral science to critical analysis demands the identification of the underlying philosophical assumptions (Cacioppo et al., 2018; Samuel et al., 2012). Moreover, the exploration of philosophy helps people to identify their personal philosophy, which is key in the development of critical thinking. In both philosophy and psychology, issues related to the nature of the self, the existence of free will, the development of original knowledge, and the effect of early experience, are addressed (Cacioppo et al., 2018). Various aspects of philosophy and psychology, including motivation, cognitive theory, and the development of self, will be covered in the paper.
Philosophical causal assumption can be adopted into psychological theory. There are four primary causal assumptions that can be applied to psychological theory. These assumptions include the efficiency, the material, the formal, and the final cause. These causal assumptions work in different ways to promote critical analysis among individuals (Barsalou, 2014). Through these causal assumptions, people are able to effectively understand themselves and their purpose in life. That way, these causal assumptions tend to help improve the level of motivation among individuals and promote personal growth, as evident in the development of self (Barsalou, 2014). In addition, personality and counseling theories, along with cognitive theory, possess the philosophical and psychological aspects which facilitate a better understanding of personal assumptions and mold the development of personal philosophy.
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Motivation
For a person to have a reason to act, he or she must have motivation; motivation gives people the confidence to achieve a given task. Motivation is a process that triggers, maintains, and directs behavior towards an objective (Aizza et al., 2018). Irrespective of the context, personal motivation is affected by both intrinsic and extrinsic elements. Motivation is an essential factor that can help ensure success in any activity. However, the extent of success from motivation relies on an individual’s motivational need, whether if it is an immediate physiological need or a more advanced need of self-actualization (Simpson et al., 2015). Lack of motivation, which can be a result of past failures, drug uses problems, low self-esteem, and lack of confidence, among others, is a result of the psychological and philosophical factors that negatively affect an individual’s ability and mental strength to complete tasks (Simpson et al., 2015). Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and key aspects that can advance people’s personal ability to achieve success and gain the relevant developmental and educational practices.
Intrinsic motivation is a personal urge that comes from within. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation represents external factors that influence a person’s control and self-counseling. On an intrinsic motivation level, an individual may be willing to work towards success because of their passion and the need to achieve outcomes that result in personal fulfillment (Llopis et al., 2016; Carr et al., 2014). Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, can be seen through either a punishment or a reward. For fear of punishment, a person may to compelled to commit himself or herself and fully dedicate himself to working hard. In workplaces, extrinsic motivation is seen in the form of special performance appraisal aspects, such as promotion, increased pay, and better employee benefits. According to Aizza et al. (2018), while pay just ensures that employees are kept from dissatisfaction, promotion and recognition of employees motivate them to work better. Be that as it may, the two aforementioned rewards ensure that an organization can retain an employee.
From the physical science point of view, motivation is a result of coordinated actions of molecules that act with specific circuits to integrate various signals in order for complex decisions to be made. The underpinning neurobiological techniques that facilitate the required psychological process ensure a healthy motivation drive if the internal and external triggers are positive (Cacioppo et al., 2018). However, if these triggers are negative, and the neurobiological mechanism fails, a person can suffer from a severe disturbance of motivation, which can result in psychiatric disorders in extreme conditions. From a philosophical point of view, the reason for action can either be normative or motivating reasons. While normative reason entails reasons that are guided by the need to justify action from a well-informed and impartial point of view, motivating reason is reasons an individual justifies his or her action with and guides him or her in her acting. In their attempt to understand motivating reasons, philosophers explore motivating reasons as premises that lead to action in practical reasoning (Alvarez, 2016). Aside from being a mental state, motivating reasons, from philosophers’ point of view, are considered putative facts. For a person to motivate himself, he or she must know or believe the component of the reason (Alvarez, 2016). In other words, motivating reasons are the content of the mental state and not the mental states themselves. The philosophical perspective argues against psychologism and proposes a non-psychologism, which supports the idea that motivating reason is a mental state of mind.
The desire not to excel can be a result of various uncertainty, the absence of well-defined goals, lower confidence level, demotivation due to unfair systems. Low self-esteem might prevent an individual from seeing the essence of success (Betz et al., 2012). Also, the absence of external triggers ends up in the lack of internal drive to succeed- when compared to employees who are rewarded consistently, people who receive negative treatment and are criticized frequently may result in players getting demotivate. In sum, while both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation affects the level of motivation independently, intrinsic motivation can also be a result of external motivations.
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theories are a branch of psychology that explores human thought processes to acquire an in-depth conceptualization of their dynamics in personal behavior. Central to these theories is the idea that the thought process is among the most vital determinant of personal behavior and traits. The aforementioned idea parallels Plato’s view of the mind. In his effort to tackle the question of “what is the mind”, Plato divided the mind into three-part that ought to be in equilibrium: reason, spirit, and appetite. According to Plato, these parts compare with a driver (reason) that guides a team of horses (spirit and appetite) (Cacioppo et al., 2018; Long, 2015). Some of these theories explore personal individual variabilities, others focus on universal traits. The Information Processing Theory is among the common theories that affect the behavior of psychologists.
The information process theory is a cognitive model that compares human memory to how a computer processes information. The theory groups the process of information into three primary goods, including the sensor, working memory, and long-term memory. The sensory memory is short-lived and is affected by activities linked to different senses (Barsalou, 2014). Since the sensory memory only focuses on what is considered essential, it should be given a great level of attention, with a significant part of the information being filtered. Further filtration of information occurs in the working memory. Only details deemed necessary and crucial in the future are stored. Relevant and important message from working memory is moved to the long-term memory (Zeglen et al., 2018). The effect of the information processing theory is prevalent, particularly how the capability of a computer to store a limitless amount of data can be compared with the limitless nature of long-term memory in information analysis and storage. Retention of information is facilitated by the encoding and retrieval process. More like monism’s idea of the mind, which argues that the mind is the result of activity in the brain, the information processing theory compares the brain with a computer that store, encode, and retain information (Cacioppo et al., 2018). Be that as it may, the selective process of organization of information based on how it is received and how it is hugely relevant here (Zeglen et al., 2018). The weakness of this comparison is that while a computer tends to ensure the retrieval of information with a guarantee, the human mind may fail to retrieve a message in some instances.
With the advancement in technologies in research methodologies being witnessed, scientific methods become a central undertaking that provides relevant conclusions in cognitive theories. Most scientists choose varied hypotheses as they can carry research to validate their assumptions or reject them (Barsalou, 2014). Most of the time, there are varied variables explored to determine if there is a link between them. In instances when specific theories come up, researchers and theorists utilize specific scientific procedures to prove such assumptions. Such approaches can help guide the process of developing standards and laws to guide varied principles that are key. With scientific research approaches expected to be replicable and precise, the method guides cognitive theories’ acceptability in the community and learning institutions.
Development of Self
George Herbert Mead came up with the various stages of development of self in 1863. These stages focus on the identification of individuals that grow via social interactions. Based on Mead’s argument, self-development is built upon preparatory, play, and game stages (Pfeifer et al., 2018). The final stage, the game stage, which starts when a child reaches eight years and continues throughout adulthood, entails a social process that encourages the achievement of selfhood. In this stage, there are biological components such as senescence and maturation, hormonal surge, brain chemistry, and physical growth (Pfeifer et al., 2018). The game stage in the development of self is guided by a biological attempt to facilitate how a person develops a personal identity.
A common biological component of the game stage that is affected by neurological processes. The neurological processes ensure sensory, emotional, and self-related information. The brain activity enables individuals to activate contemplative elements of their lives, such as the potential, experience, preferences, and goals (Parsons et al., 2016). chemical processes of the brain promote the development of self by intensifying an individual’s perception of personal attributes for self-representation. For example, the neural basis of autobiographical memory and knowledge about an individual’s life is associated with a person’s brain chemistry. The game stage is also affected by cognitive development share by the process of senescence and maturation. The biological process ensures normal growth among children, young adults, and adults. The cognitive changes at the game stage have now stabilized and under control. Hereditary factors play a significant role played, particularly in the genetics of the person (Pfeifer et al., 2018). The development of self is also influenced by environmental factors that affect cognitive development. Factors, such as schooling, which plays a central role in intellectual stimulation and behavioral support, affect the cognitive development of an individual and thus their self-development. Education promotes formal operative thought among teenagers and adults.
Descartes introduced the idea that the mind and the body influence each other; the interaction is not one way but a reciprocal relationship between biology and behavior. While the hormonal release by the mind can influence how the body reacts, say, high heart rate or increased rate of sweating, the body, can also dictate the level of hormonal secretion, particularly in the case of hormones related to sexual activities (Cacioppo et al., 2018). During the game stage, a hormonal surge is a common phenomenon. Throughout development, a person’s self-identify is impacted by the biological processes he or she experiences; biological processes that are linked to reproductive maturity play the biggest role. Hormonal surge is affected by neurobehavioral and neural correlations of human social behavior. Aside from the reproductive maturity that is evident, the neural system also changes during the game stage, facilitating the newfound self-development.
The interaction between the mind and body continues to be evident through the physical growth that occurs in the game stage, playing a significant role in the development of self among males. The distinct interaction between the body and the mind is seen through the varied changes in girls and bodies. Changes in both genders are affected to a great extent by genetics (Pfeifer et al., 2018). The conceptualization of the biological processes among teenagers helps to guide the creation of a serene nurturing environment for this population group. Based on the analysis of the development of self, it is evident that the game stage facilitates the most influences on the brain and body. It is at this stage that people experience cognitive development and the development of self. Things such as maturation, hormonal surge, brain activities, and gender identity are witnessed during this stage. The hormonal surge is known to contribute to reproductive maturity and is influenced by neurobehavioral and neural correlations of the human social traits. Besides, senescence and maturation promote formative growth and noticeable stability throughout a person’s life.
In summary, despite the difficulties in identifying the connection between physical science and philosophy, there is a significant relationship between philosophy and psychology. First, philosophical knowledge helps to promote critical thinking, which is vital in the field of psychology. Besides, concepts borrowed from philosophy play a central role in the development of theories in behavioral science. Both fields drive strong issues in relation to the nature of the self, the concept of free will, and the impact of early experience on life. The philosophical causal assumptions also have a strong effect on psychology. Based on the analysis above, motivation can be explained using both psychological and philosophical concepts. The intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can be explained using neurobiological mechanisms or motivating reasons. In exploring the cognitive theory, Plato responds to the question of “what is mind?”. Plato’s response possesses some similarities to the information process theory that compares the human brain to a computer. In another conceptualization of the brain, monism’s states that the mind is a result of the brain, giving the idea of a central processing unit of a computer that store, encode, and retain information as in the case of the information processing theory. The paper also explored the development of self from both a psychological and a philosophical point of view. By analyzing different neurobiological changes during the game stage, including hormonal surge, brain chemistry, and physical growth, cognitive development and the development of self are witnessed. Elsewhere, from a philosophical point of view, Descartes introduces the idea that the mind and the body influence each other. Descartes’s argument is supported by the biological evidence of how hormones affect the body and the other way rounds.
References
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