Akers’ social learning theory suggests that people learn behavior when the positive outcomes of the behavior are stronger than the positive outcomes of normative behavior. The theory highlights the issue of the way people learn criminal behavior. Dealing with the issue requires the consideration of the original social learning principle based on Bandura’s work and the suggestion that people learn criminal behavior through the operant conditioning principle. The previous social learning theory states that modeling and observations contribute to learning of behavior (Cook & Artino, 2016). The theory goes further by demonstrating that directly interacting with the environment leads to learning. A person can learn by simply observing the behavior of other people. For example, even if a person has never played tennis before, he would know the action to take if someone gave him a tennis ball and told him to attempt and hit the ball. The reason for this is that the person has seen tennis players perform the action either on television or in person. The individual models the behavior of others through observation, which results in the formation of ideas regarding the way others perform new behaviors. In turn, the person uses the coded information to guide his behavior later in life.
The theory has three core ideas. The first concept is that individuals learn through observation. The next idea is that internal mental states contribute to the observation process. Lastly, the theory suggests that learning something does not necessarily lead to behavior change (Cook & Artino, 2016). Learning through observation does not necessarily require people to watch others engaging in specific activities. A person can learn through hearing verbal directives such as through listening to a recording. People can also learn through watching, hearing, or reading the actions of film and book characters (Bajcar & Bąbel, 2018). Additionally, the theory notes that outside environmental reinforcement is not the only essential element that affects learning because the motivation and the mental state of the individual are also essential in influencing whether the person learns the behavior or not (Cook & Artino, 2016). These internal reinforcements can be a sense of achievement, satisfaction, and pride (Cook & Artino, 2016). Moreover, the theory demonstrates that learning does not always result in behavior change. The new behavior can arise immediately after learning or fail to arise immediately after learning. The reason for this is that in observational learning, a person can acquire new information without showing new behaviors (Bajcar & Bąbel, 2018).
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Based on the operant conditioning concept, there are four types of mechanisms involved in behavior learning. They are differential associations, definitions, differential reinforcement, and imitation. Concerning differential associations, interactions within associations such as neighbors, friends, and family members can facilitate favorable or unfavorable definitions of legal or illegal behaviors (Cochran et al., 2016). Factors such as priority, duration, frequency, and intensity of the associated effect control the strength of the effect on the behavior (Cochran et al., 2016). Individuals learn meanings, attitudes, and definitions for specific behaviors as bad or good from their surroundings. If an individual defines a specific behavior positively or neutrally, the individual will have a high possibility of practicing the behavior. Concerning differential reinforcement, the balance between the actual and expected punishment and reward affects individual behavior. The more rewards reinforce specific behaviors, the more the individual repeats these behaviors and vice versa when the behavior is related to punishment. Lastly, imitation entails a person practicing a specific behavior after observing several models of the behavior (Cochran et al., 2016). The differential association and differential reinforcement are similar to Bandura’s theory that emphasize the role of association of models and observation, internal definitions that support the act, and expected outcomes after the act. The social learning theory describes the role of social learning in criminal behavior and the way people develop anti-social behavior.
The current paper uses Akers’ social learning theory to analyze six types of violent acts, which are intimate violence, violence against children, violence against the elderly, workplace violence, school violence, and media violence and its effect on children. The paper will also review five evidence-based programs for violence prevention.
Intimate Violence
Regarding the intimate partner violence, the theory of social learning postulates that children who grow up in households experiencing intimate violence have a high possibility of continuing experiencing or witnessing violence in their households as violent partners than children who do not grow up in those households (Cochran et al., 2016). The children observe and internalize the attitudes towards violence, conflict resolution, and family roles. In turn, this leads to the normalization of intimate violence among family members and increases the potential of the children using violence in their future homes.
Children can also adopt and replicate the various violence types observed (Cochran et al., 2016). Early violent socialization significantly affect children’s belief regarding violence, which is consistent with the theory of social learning. The theory suggests that childhood violence experiences affect people’s approval of violence (Cochran, Jones, et al., 2016). In comparison to violent socialization mechanisms through non-family members, processes experienced within families have a significant effect on individuals’ beliefs about the use of violence. The implication of this is that the family environment has a crucial role in influencing the attitude and beliefs of violence among children.
People who experience an early, an extended, a regular and a close association also experience a stronger effect of the association on their behavior (Cochran et al., 2016). In turn, this explains the stronger influence of family on the violent socialization of children than non-family members. Different forms of violent socialization, however, have different effects on people’s acceptance of violence. For instance, socialization mechanisms through verbal advice regarding violence from non-family and family members strongly predict people’s acceptance of intimate violence than experiences concerning witnessing violence and violence victimization of children (Gage, 2015). Studies also demonstrate the same-sex modeling influence in which children witnessing a parent of their gender perpetrating violence have a high chance of using aggression in their intimate relationships (Cochran, Jones, et al., 2016). Additionally, witnessing violence from both partners increases the risk of intimate violence victimizations (Cochran et al., 2016). In intimate violence, differential reinforcement and differential associations are the dominant predictors.
Violence against Children
The social learning theory suggests that a previous history of violence victimization increases the risk of engaging in violent behavior for some people (Lateef & Jenney, 2020). While most of the children who experience violence do not commit violent acts against other children in future, some of them do (Lateef & Jenney, 2020). For those who end-up abusing other children, the violent experience had a lasting effect on their development. Based on the theory of social learning, people learn these behaviors through their experience of violence. Several factors, however, determine the potential for whether people adopt violent behavior from perpetrators. If the victim of the violent act experiences psychological arousal or satisfaction from the violent encounter, the person will be conditioned to attain arousal in identical encounters in the future.
Children who experience violence can also develop distorted views regarding the behavior and can relate the maltreatment to normal behavior to obtain affection (Lateef & Jenney, 2020). The victims in both cases learn that the specific violent encounter can be beneficial or favorable in a certain way, which increases the potential for the person to practice the same event later. Factors such as age, duration, types of violent acts, the perpetrator's modus operandi, the perpetrators gender, and the way the perpetrator and the victim are related affect victim’s interpretation of the violent behavior (Torres & van der Walt, 2014). Younger victims have a higher chance of accepting the violent act as normal while an extended experience of the violent act allows the victim to learn the act and observe or experience the rewards related to the act. Additionally, traumatic acts such as sexual abuse increase the chances of the victim normalizing the act through cognitive dissonance while a perpetrator using a greater force during the violent act reinforces the learning of the act through acknowledgement. Male victims usually use force and in cases where the victim is male, the associated shame increase the risk of dealing with the violence through behavior repetition (Torres & van der Walt, 2014). Besides, perpetrators who are family or close individuals to the victim increase the risk of behavior modeling in the victim.
Violence against Older Persons
Regarding elder abuse, studies have found that offspring are the dominant perpetrators of violence against older persons (Lopes et al., 2018). The social learning theory proposes that male children who are exposed to violent or aggressive behavior in their families as a way of resolving conflicts have a high chance of engaging in violent behavior as adults. Additionally, female children who are exposed to violent or aggressive behavior in their families as a way of resolving conflicts have a higher chance of becoming victims as older people (Ernst, 2015). The theory suggests that the existence of violent behaviors within family dynamics increases the risk of elderly abuse. Studies also suggest that adults abusing the elderly do so to retaliate for the abuse they suffered from their now older parents (Ernst, 2015). Families experiencing elderly abuse have a history of violent and troubled relationships in which abusive adults were victims of violent behavior as children (Ernst, 2015). Their exposure to violent acts influenced them to learn these acts as normative behavioral reactions.
Workplace Violence
Regarding workplace violence, the social learning theory postulates that violence at work occurs due to employees’ experiences of stress in their workplace (Anderson et al., 2019). Violent behavior within organizations arises due to adverse outcomes such as work discontinuations or severe disciplinary action. These events increase the overall arousal levels of the affected workers, who engage in a causal search. The organizational environment and individual differences moderate the search due to their effect on the potential for specific causal attribution (Anderson et al., 2019). If the affected individuals attribute the cause to internal factors such as lack of ability or effort, emotional reactions such as guilt and shame usually arise leading to non-violent behaviors. If the individuals, nevertheless, attribute the cause to external factors, they become angry and engage in violent acts.
The state of emotional arousal increases the risk of the occurrence of violent acts (Anderson et al., 2019). Besides, other factors within an organizational context are also related to workplace violence incidents. For example, different organizations expose employees to various criteria of socially acceptable violent behavior. Factors that increase the risk of aggressive behaviors include inflexible policies, the existence of numerous procedures and rules, and dictatorial leadership techniques based on excessive controls (Anderson et al., 2019). Since the theory of social learning states that people learn from observing punished and rewarded behavior and through experiences, various organizational contexts expose employees to different behaviors. Those firms that reinforce violent acts through supporting a culture of aggressiveness increase the risk of workplace violence compared to organizations that do not reinforce aggression.
School Violence
The social learning theory states that students learn deviant behavior by associating with deviant peers through imitations and differential reinforcement. They usually observe deviant behaviors and socialize with deviant peers in which they learn about acceptable deviant acts. The perceived gains or differential reinforcement demonstrating that rewards are greater than punishments reinforce these acts (Thomas et al., 2014). The affected individuals then imitate the deviant behavior before practicing them through modeling the learned acts, which their peers also reinforced (Akers & Sellers, 2013, pp. 78–111). Youths normally imitate or model behaviors they consider to be more desirable based on differential reinforcement (Thomas et al., 2014). Studies consider definitions and differential associations to be the key social learning theory processes (Akers & Sellers, 2013, pp. 78–111). The implication of this is that associating with others and the learned definitions from the associations strongly predict deviant acts.
Regarding school violence, studies emphasize the role of definitions about the reasons perpetrators engage in the violence and the way they commit violence. Associations with deviant peers and the differential reinforcement of deviant acts through the deviant peers allow youths to learn about these acts (Thomas et al., 2014). Based on the differential association principle, trusted and close companions and relatives teach deviant acts and attitudes, which creates and sustains an environment in which criminal activities are favored more than non-criminal events. Notably, differential association explores both the learning of criminal behaviors, the skills, the specific techniques from influential peers, and how peer networks teach groups psychological ways of coping with criminality. Deviant peers, thus, teach other youths to legitimize deviant acts, which helps the youth to change from law-abiding people to law-breaking individuals to support their criminal behaviors (Akers & Sellers, 2013, pp. 78–111). In turn, this causes the youth to justify their deviant behaviors as being the norm.
Media Violence and its Impact on Children
The social learning theory demonstrates that exposure to aggressive acts in the media including shows in TVs affects aggression in real life (C. A. Anderson, 2019). Media coverage of violent acts decreases the social distance linking existing perpetrators to future perpetrators, which allows the future perpetrators to identify despite lacking a direct connection with existing perpetrators (Thomas et al., 2014). Research shows that differential associations do not only concern direct identification with people or groups, it also involves indirect identification with others (Akers & Sellers, 2013, pp. 78–111). The social learning theory considers distal groups created due to mass media coverage as key contributors to differential associations (Cochran et al., 2016). For example, perpetrators of the Sandy Hook Elementary shooting in 2012 and the Virginia Tech shooting in 2007 referenced the Columbine shooting (Thomas et al., 2014). In turn, this demonstrates a relationship in which perpetrators learn from each other.
The expanded media coverage of violence events allows potential perpetrators to imitate and identify with the covered events, which are the crucial social learning process elements (Akers & Sellers, 2013, pp. 78–111). The increased media attention of violent acts reinforces the actions of the perpetrators, which allows other children to identify, learn, and imitate the acts. Studies consider imitations to be the main concern since any child can be the next violence perpetrator if they learn ways of dealing with victimization by identifying and imitating violent events (Thomas et al., 2014). Youth attempt to imitate high profile violent events globally due to the global reach of the mass media (Thomas et al., 2014). Based on the social learning theory, potential perpetrators of violence identify with existing perpetrators due to media coverage, which allows them to learn about ways of coping with stressors that arise due to victimization within their lives. Through watching the media glorify perpetrators of violence, they imitate what they idolize in the perpetrators (Thomas et al., 2014). The extensive media coverage of violent acts and perpetrators creates the required positive reinforcement that encourages potential perpetrators to engage in similar acts. Future perpetrators identify, learn, observe the notoriety, and imitate the violent event based on the theory of social learning using the events and perpetrators as role models. The acts may include how perpetrators who committed violent acts collected weapons including how they use the internet to make explosives or obtain firearms.
Evidenced-Based Programs for Preventing Violence
There are various evidence-based programs for preventing violence targeting different populations and in different locations. Examples include GenerationPMTO, multisystemic therapy (MST), positive action, promoting alternative thinking strategies (PATHS), and treatment foster care Oregon (SAMHSA, 2018).
GenerationPMTO is a family-based program that focuses on teaching families effective management skills to decrease problematic and anti-social behavior among children. The program targets youth aged 3 to 18 years. It features theoretical parental interventions that are implemented in different family environments including homeless shelters, schools, homes, and clinics. It can be delivered in individual or group family arrangements over different periods based on the needs of each family. Sessions are usually separated by a single week to offer families adequate time to learn and rehearse new techniques. Therapists usually coach and teach parents how to apply effective parenting techniques such as positive involvement, problem-solving, monitoring, effective discipline, establishing limits, and skill encouragement. It also includes techniques such as behavior tracking, giving clear guidelines, improving communication, and determining and controlling emotions.
The program targets behaviors such as antisocial violent acts, internalizing and externalizing, emotional control, delinquency and deviance, and conduct issues. The major risks that contribute to violent behavior in the targeted population are interactions with deviant peers, inadequate family management, parental stress, and low socioeconomic status. The program helps parents establish clear behavior standards, enhance prosocial acts and prosocial engagement, encourage rewards for positive behavior, and teaches skills that facilitate social interaction. It also teaches skills that enhance interaction between prosocial peers in addition to allowing parents to establish opportunities for prosocial engagement with youths, engage in the education of their children, and encourage them to reward positive engagement behaviors with their children.
MST is a program targeting families and communities to deal with different causes of severe antisocial acts among children. It focuses on enhancing the real-world functioning of young people through transforming their natural environments including neighborhood, school, and homes to promote positive behavior and decrease violent acts. It targets youths aged 12 to 18 years and involves therapists working with young people and their families to handle the causes of deviant behaviors on a comprehensive and individualized way. It capitalizes on the strengths of each environment to promote transformation and deal with the different factors related to deviant behavior across the environments in which young people are found.
The program mostly targets behaviors related to violence, internalizing and externalizing, delinquency and deviance, conduct issues, and illegal use of drugs. The main risks in the environment that contribute to violent behaviors include early initiation of deviant behavior and drug utilization, rebelliousness, inclination towards deviant acts, peer drug use, and interaction with deviant youths. There are also risks such as family violence, neglect, the inclination of parents towards deviant behaviors and substance use, parental stress and mental health issues, violent discipline, and inadequate family management. Others include poor academic performance, inadequate attachment and commitment to schools, disorganized communities, and lack of norms and laws that favor positive behavior. The program aims to set clear behavior standards, teach problem-solving skills, encourage prosocial engagement, encourage rewards for positive behaviors, teach skills that encourage social interaction, and teach youths the importance of interacting with prosocial peers. It also focuses on teaching families non-violent discipline, ways of supporting their children socially, through engaging in their education, through rewarding positive behavior, and ways of creating opportunities to engage with their children. Schools and communities also learn ways of encouraging prosocial behaviors at schools and the importance of rewarding positive behaviors.
Positive action is a school-focused program that promotes social-emotional learning among elementary and middle school students. The aim is to enhance pro-social behavior, decrease deviant behavior, and enhance emotional and social learning. The program entails a school-wide climate transformation training with lessons throughout each week. It also includes a wide range of materials including games, music, puppets, and posters. It aims to teach the targeted population the importance of prosocial behaviors and the dangers of adverse behaviors. The programs targets behaviors such as violence, bullying, anxiety, substance use, sexual risk, and emotional regulation in addition to deviant and delinquency.
The main risks the targeted population is exposed to include violent acts, bullying, early initiation of substance use and deviant behavior, inclination towards deviant behavior and substance use, and rebelliousness. Others are peer deviant behavior, interaction with deviant peers, poor academic achievement, and lack of attachment and commitment to the school. The programs focus on enhancing academic self-efficacy, teach problem-solving, refusal, and social interaction skills in addition to addressing drug use risks, improving positive interactions with prosocial peers, and teaching parents to reward positive behavior among children. It also aims to teach schools to reward positive behavior and to create opportunities for youths to engage in prosocial behaviors.
The PATHS program is a classroom-focused social-emotional learning training targeting students at the elementary level to deal with violent behaviors. It is a curriculum-based program with a comprehensive plan to promote social and emotional skills and decrease violent behavior among young people. It includes developmentally sufficient content including posters, photographs, and pictures that target domains such as interpersonal problem solving, relationships, positive self-esteem, emotional understanding, and self-control competencies. Both counselors and educators can use the program to prevent violent behaviors.
The program mainly targets behaviors such as externalizing, violent behaviors, and delinquency and deviance. The risks in the targeted setting that contribute to violent behavior are hyperactivity, antisocial behaviors, inclination towards deviant behavior, and early initiation of deviant behavior. Others are grade repetition and low attachment and commitment to the school. The program aims to teach social interaction, problem-solving, and prosocial behavior competencies in addition to encouraging interactions with prosocial peers. It also focuses on teaching schools to reward positive behavior and create opportunities for youths to engage in prosocial behaviors.
The treatment foster care Oregon is a therapeutic program that aims at decreasing violence among teen and promotes positive behavior. The program stakeholders recruit families in the community, trains them, and supervises them to offer interventions for teens at school, home or in the community. It involves positive reinforcement for positive behaviors, establishing a relationship with a mentor, and separating teens from deviant peers. The program is based on a behavior modification technique that targets both youths and their families with close supervisions from the program stakeholders. It targets youths aged 12 to 18 years old. The most prevalent behaviors among the targeted population include violence, violence towards children, substance use, delinquency and deviance, and teen pregnancy. The major risk in this population that contribute to violent behavior include physical violence, early initiation of deviant behavior, and inclination towards deviant behavior. Others are poor academic achievement, poor family management, and interactions with deviant peers. The program aims to teach teen social interaction, prosocial engagement, positive behavior, and problem-solving skills. It also focuses on teaching the youths the importance of interacting with prosocial peers in addition to teaching families the importance of social support and rewarding positive behavior. It also aims to teach schools about the role of rewarding positive behavior at school.
The present paper analyzed intimate violence, violence against children, violence against older persons, workplace violence, school violence, and media violence and its impact on children based on Akers’ social learning theory. The theory suggests that environmental contexts teach and reinforce the attitudes of people towards violence. In turn, this highlights the importance of implementing early intervention measures to prevent the effect of a person’s socialization to violence regarding the possible attitudes towards violence and acts of violence. The paper recommends a program focused on developing life skills among populations aged 3-18 years old. The interventions includes a social development program that teaches the youth behavioral, emotional, and social skills to prevent youth violence and an enrichment program that offers children with social and academic competencies. These skills help children and the youth to address daily challenges effectively. Besides, targeting this group early in life can significantly prevent aggression, decrease involvement in violence, enhance social competencies, improve educational attainment, and enhance career prospects. The program is beneficial because its effects can last into adulthood because of its early intervention.
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