Stigmatization refers to the unfair treatment of a person or something. This can be based on some particular characteristics such as social behavior or being a member of a particular group. As outlined by the study conducted by Kurzban and Leary (2001), every human requires a positive social relationship with his/her environment. Social rejection or discrimination also referred to as stigmatization, exposes individuals to various behavioral, physical and emotional problems. The article by Kurzban and Leary (2001) is aimed at investigating the new perspective of stigmatization and why the human species tend to reject their own members based on their social and individual variances even though the same people rejecting others do possess a strong need for acceptance from the other quarters.
The stigmatized individuals do possess some social characteristics or behaviors that condemn them to an identity that is not highly regarded or is devalued in some specific situations. Therefore, the article analyzes stigmatization based on various evolutionary considerations. According to evolution, people tend to be different phenotypically. This can be attributed to the definite requirements for survival in their respective geographical locations. Because of the need to survive, people did adapt to their environmental conditions in different ways. Stigmatization arose when from adaptation; certain individuals assumed some superiority over the others based on their adaptation characteristics which are passed to the offspring.
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Kurzban and Leary (2001) also analyze two dimensions of the stigma that influences the discrimination process. The dimensions are danger and visibility. These too influence how the others will react to the stigmatized individuals. For example, a less visible condition makes it less recognizable among strangers and a person with the condition will be socially accepted by the strangers at least before they can learn about the stigmatizing trait.
On the other hand, the article by Brondolo et al., (2009) outlines the available models that are helpful to cope up with racism. The article describes racism as a stressor which is responsible for the disparities in both the mental and physical health of individuals from different races or ethnic backgrounds. Such racial and ethnic-based discernments can be related to mental health impairments such as negative moods and symptoms of depression. Also, some researchers have suggested that self-reported racism can be linked to hypertension or precipitating factors for hypertension and heart diseases. The piece by Brondolo et al., (2009), therefore, tackles racism in three different sections. It begins with the way racism acts as a stressor and the related possible illnesses. Subsequently, the article addresses the various models available in conceptualizing the coping strategies. Last but not least, the article further articulates the three ways in which an individual can deal with racism and includes expression, anger suppression, and social support.
The article written by Hawkley and Cacioppo (2013) explores the connection between loneliness and various health hazards. As highlighted in the article, there exists a difference between loneliness and being alone. Being alone refers to the physical isolation from people that usually takes shorter periods and results due to circumstances. Loneliness, on the other hand, refers to the absence of connectedness between an individual and his/her partner (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2013). In the case of loneliness, there is a gap between the social relationship that one desires to have and the one that is presented by the people around him/her. Such people feel that they are always isolated and that they do not belong to the social groups that exist in their surroundings.
Chronic loneliness has a long-term impact on the health of some individuals. Results of research done on individuals living in lonely conditions showed that they were at risk of contracting diseases such as cardiovascular health problems (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2013). The article also tackles how loneliness can present an easier pathway for diseases like hypertension, diabetes and coronary heart diseases which relies on the individual behaviors and environmental influences. Lonely individuals do perceive life as stressful and unworthy. The attitude alone is a precipitating factor for the ill-health conditions.
Novel Study, Empirical Questions, Hypotheses, and Implications
In the Kurzban and Leary (2001) article, stigmatization is examined using the revolutionary assumptions and the characteristics that arise from the adaption of individuals to particular environmental factors. The bigger question is how do the evolutionary adaptations lead to possible social stigmatization? It is depicted in the article how some perspectives and dimensions can be used in explaining stigma. The dimensions are broadly categorized into danger and visibility. There are traits that social groups use to classify themselves as socially superior to the other people. The traits can vary in their visibility and their ability to endanger the other people. These two forms the basis of stigmatization. Somebody with a medical condition that can be transmissible through contact or close interaction, in most cases, tends to be a victim of stigma. The individual will experience discrimination from the normal individuals in most circumstances. Other conditions which are not necessarily dangerous to others but are visible also attract stigmatization. A simple example is a difference in height among people from different localities. In this case, people are categorized as dwarfs, normal in size, tall or very tall. These variations affect the way people feel about themselves. The most affected thing is their self-esteem. Height is a highly visible trait and the dwarfs, in most instance, suffer from unfair treatment and isolation.
Some conditions such as skin diseases can be hidden, and so their visibility is controllable. Such people can relate freely in various environments until the people come to learn about their conditions. Stigmatized individuals with controllable or avoidable conditions usually tend to face more pressure than those with adaptation conditions.
Lastly, stigmatization does not only result from physical conditions but also resource distribution and individual’s mentality. This explains why stigma is considered as more of a behavioral and attitude problem. The socially superior individuals use the phenomenon to gain self-esteem and to develop their superior social identity. For the stigmatized individuals, they usually tend to alienate themselves from interacting with the other people just for fear of being maltreated. The result is two social groups of individuals with different identities and attitudes towards one another, and this forms the basis of stigmatization.
Racism as described by Brondolo et al., (2009), refers to the cultural and institutional beliefs and arrangements which separate and discriminate individuals based on their phenotypic features such as skin color, or ethnic background. Racism is exhibited globally in different platforms like on interpersonal levels, institutional, societal or cultural levels. Racism is a stressor, which if individuals do not learn how to cope with, might lead to some psychological and mental health problems (Brondolo et al., 2009). The main content of the article dwells in the measures that can be used to help cope with instances of racism.
The first approach is the social support. Here, an individual finds a leaning shoulder where he can express his/her ordeals and find the individuals or groups who help to boost his/her morale. Because racial or ethnic discrimination has the negative impact on the social behavior of individuals, the victims tend to feel lonely and dejected. Social support helps such individuals to feel some connectedness to a particular people and to understand that whatever they are experiencing is a shared experience that they do not have to burden alone. The effectiveness of social support is measured by the ability of the racially discriminated individuals to organize themselves into groups that help in the fight against ethnicity and racial discriminations.
The other approaches towards coping with racism are the ability to express the problems and cope with anger. Usually, the discriminated against individuals do get frustrated and angry at the treatments. In the expression of anger, violent reactions might result. In the strategies that involve coping up with racism, the anger expression can be tackled in two ways. The first method is on how one can express in a legally acceptable manner but with the result that can motivate the discriminating individual to stop the behavior. Two, one can be taught how to control his actions when the feeling of anger overwhelms him/her. The reduced interracial and interethnic violence that used to be common in the past is the measure that shows the success of the anger management strategies. The resultant impact is the continued awareness by those who were perceived to be racially and ethnic superiors. In the end, they realize the need to live in harmony with the others as one. Expression by victims when they experience the maltreatment is the first step towards coping with the racial discriminations. People are, therefore, encouraged to open up and talk about their experiences.
The final reading talks about the possible health effects of loneliness. According to Hawkley and Cacioppo (2013), loneliness, is different from being alone, in its lack of emotional connectedness despite the presence of many individuals in one’s surrounding. Loneliness itself has got its health effects (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2013). It also provides pathways for various diseases and exposes people to stresses and cardiovascular illnesses.
Naturally, human beings require the social connectedness and sense of belonging to thrive. The mental and behavioral development of humans is related to their ability to socially interact with the other people and share moments together. Loneliness results when one is unable to comfortably relate to the people around him to his/her satisfaction. Loneliness as described impacts on individuals negatively both in their social life and health wise. When one loses the connectedness with his immediate environment, the obvious result is a person who is always moody and dejected. Such people also tend to stay alone and think that they are not welcomed by the people around them. Loneliness can also make one lose his/her self-esteem. Health wise, loneliness can make an individual consume foods with high calories and end up adopting an unhealthy lifestyle which would be detrimental to his/her life. Such lifestyles lead to obesity which is a precursor to both the cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. The mental strength of the individuals does decline, and at very young age, hypertension might develop.
Evidently, the social life of a person is important in maintaining a good health. This is determined by several things in life. One of the aspect is living a stress-free life filled with happiness. In addition to that, one needs to have a sense of belonging and entitlement. However, three factors namely, stigmatization, racism, and loneliness influence the kind of social life that one lives. Such factors can negatively affect the life of an individual to the extent that he/she may develop mental and psychological problems. Therefore, there is need to moderate the factors in a way that would benefit a person by boosting his/her self-esteem and morale.
References
Brondolo, E., Ver Halen, N. B., Pencille, M., Beatty, D., & Contrada, R. J. (2009). Coping with racism: A selective review of the literature and a theoretical and methodological critique. Journal of behavioral medicine , 32 (1), 64-88.
Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2013). Social connectedness and health. Human bonding: The science of affectional ties , 343 .
Kurzban, R., & Leary, M. R. (2001). Evolutionary origins of stigmatization: the functions of social exclusion. Psychological bulletin , 127 (2), 187.
