PART A
Describe slow-wave sleep and REM sleep
Similarly recognized as deep sleep, during slow-wave sleep, the electroencephalogram (EEG) is synchronized and hence produces waves whose frequency is less than 1 Hz at a relatively high amplitude (Carlson, 2013). The first stage of the wave is referred to as the downstate. In this state, the neurons in the neocortex are silent throughout the entire stage of sleep. It is only during the down state that the neocortical neurons can experience some rest. The second part of the wave represents the upstate. This is the excitation period in which the neurons fire shortly but at a higher rate. Hence, due to the contrasting activities of the neocortical neurons during the two sections of the wave, the downstate is referred to as the depolarization phase while the upstate is known as the hyperpolarization phase ( Carlson, 2013 ; Teofilo Lee-Chiong, 2012; Siegel, 2008 ).
The Rapid Eye Movement (REM) s leep , on the other hand, is a phase of sleep that is commonly exhibited in mammals. It is also referred to as paradoxical or desynchronized sleep ( Carlson , 2013 ; Carney et al., 2005). This is due to the contrary physiological activities that almost depict wakefulness even when the person is asleep. In this case, the neocortical and thalamic neurons are extremely depolarized compared to the deeply sleeping brain. Similarly, during REM sleep, both the right and the left hemispheres of the brain are more coherent, especially during lucid dreams experienced by the sleeping mammal. According to experimental research on the stages of sleep, the average brain energy consumed during REM sleep as established through the metabolic rates of oxygen and glucose almost equals and sometimes exceeds the total energy used when waking from sleep ( Carlson, 2013 ; Teofilo Lee-Chiong, 2012; Carney et al., 2005).
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The brain activity during the two stages
During sleep, the brain does not assume an inactive state but instead continues to carry out its functions. The prefrontal cortex of the mammalian eye is responsible for mental planning, keeping track of the organization of events as well as creating distinctions between illusions and reality. The slow-wave sleeps is not associated with complex brain activities ( Teofilo Lee-Chiong , 2012). However, various scholars have cited that the rate of cerebral blood flow in the human brain, especially the visual association cortex, significantly increases during REM . At the same time, the cerebral blood flow in the primary visual cortex and the prefrontal cortex drastically reduces to a constant low. The reduced blood supply leads to a lack of brain activity in the primary visual cortex since it no longer receives visual signals. On the other hand, the increased blood supply in the visual association cortex leads to a high level of activity in the visual association cortex. This explains the visual hallucinations that occur during sleep ( Carlson, 2013 ) .
The EEG recording during the two stages
An EEG recording for the slow-wave is characterized by moderate muscle tone, slow or completely absent eye movements and a complete lack of genital activity. Slow-wave sleep is majorly associated with the consolidation of new memories and to th is effect is sometimes referred to as “ sleep-dependent memory processing. ” It thus significantly improves the declarative memory (Siegel, 200 8 ). On the other hand, an EEG recording of REM sleep shows random movements of the eye, extremely low muscle tone throughout the mammalian body, and a high propensity of the sleeping person to experience vivid dreams ( Carlson, 2013; Siegel, 200 8). There is a consensus that the chemical and electrical initiators of REM sleep and related activities emanate from the brain stem. This is because this phase of sleep is characterized by the abundant presence of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and the nearly complete absence of monoamine neurotransmitters histamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.
PART B
Describe two types of learning
Perpetual and motor learning are two notable types of learning. Perceptual learning takes place when an individual is repeatedly or continuously exposed to a particular stimulus. This process of learning results in long-lasting and almost permanent changes to the perceptual system of the exposed person to the extent that the individual’s response to the stimuli is entirely altered to depict the desired response (Carlson, 2013; Fahle & Poggio, 2002; Gibson, 200 0 ). Perceptual learning subsequently takes place in four distinct phases. These are attention weighting, imprinting, differentiation, and unitization (Carlson, 2013; Gibson, 200 0 ). During attention weighting, the person adapts to the exposed tasks by paying increased and close attention to the most important requirement. Imprinting, on the other hand, involves the development of distinct receptors specifically meant for the stimuli. The differentiation phase sees the once indistinguishable stimuli become psychologically separated. Finally, during unitization, activities that initially required the detection of multiple components are quickly accomplished by just detecting a single construct.
Motor learning, on the other hand, refers to a complex process that occurs in the brain in response to a certain practice or experience of a particular skill. This eventually develops in the central nervous system to cause the production of new motor skills ( Schmidt & Lee, 2013; Fahle, & Poggio, 2002). Motor learning takes place in three distinct stages. These are the cognitive stage, the associative stage, and the autonomous stage. During the cognitive stage, the principal aim is to develop an elaborative understanding of the desired skill. Subsequently, the learner is guided to identify the objective of the skill and initiate the course of processing environmental factors that impact the individual ability to produce the skill ( Schmidt & Lee, 2013) . The associative stage involves the attempts by the learner to depict a more refined skill. The learner exhibits a mastery of the various stimuli and discerns multiple responses to the same stimuli. Finally, the autonomous stage is the phase of motor learning in which the motor skill becomes more automatic. Thus, the learner shows the ability to perform the skill with very little cognitive involvement regardless of the environment.
Provide one example of a situation where each of these types of learning occurs
The process of learning how to ride a bicycle has been cited as a case in point of motor learning ( Schmidt & Lee, 2013). Initially, the learner is meant to understand that balancing is the primary requirement for one to be a rider. He once, whenever the learner thinks of riding, the concept of balance comes into mind. In this case, learning the importance of balance becomes the cognitive stage of motor learning. After that, the learner begins practicing riding concentrating mostly on balancing. Continued practice makes the learner conversant with the skill of balancing and grows very close to mastering the whole process, hence the associative stage. Finally, after learning how to balance and developing sufficient confidence, the learner can easily ride without paying much attention to it s was the case in the first instance.
All types of formal learning and training are examples of perceptual learning ( Fahle & Poggio, 2002; Gibson, 200 0). During formal learning, the aim of the teacher is to change the perception of the students towards a certain approach which is often established and documented in the syllabus and education curriculum. Hence, the students are repeatedly exposed to similar concepts in a given subject and guided to understand the most vital information that is contained in various books and learning resources. Paying attention is therefore emphasized in the learning process since it determines the ability of students to recall and retain all the concepts learned. Finally, on acquiring knowledge, the students can carry out activities that require such knowledge without the presence of the teacher.
References
Carlson, N. R. (2013). Physiology of behavior . Boston: Pearson.
Carney, P. R., Berry, R. B., & Geyer, J. D. (Eds.). (2005). Clinical sleep disorders . Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Fahle, M., & Poggio, T. (2002). Perceptual learning . MIT Press.
Gibson, E. J. (2000). Perceptual learning in development: Some basic concepts. Ecological Psychology , 12 (4), 295-302.
Schmidt, R., & Lee, T. (2013). Motor Learning and performance, 5E with web study guide: from principles to application . Human Kinetics.
Siegel, J. (2008). The neural control of sleep and waking . Springer Science & Business Media.
Teofilo Lee-Chiong, M. D. (2012). Fundamentals of sleep technology . Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
