Introduction
Political parties have a major impact on public perceptions and opinions. People tend to be quite eager to follow their parties’ lead when they take stands on different issues and perspectives. Following political parties tends to influence the public’s perceptions of national identity and ethnicity. This discussion explores the political parties in Bosnia-Herzegovina, a country in South-Eastern Europe. It determines their argument on who the parties think is a part of the country and who they perceive to be an outsider and the possible impact of the perceptions. Bosnia-Herzegovina was selected because of its current political situation. Ethnic groups in Bosnia-Herzegovina are involved in disintegrative nationalism. Political parties in Bosnia-Herzegovina have opposed the idea of having a unified and centralized country for a long time. The opposition is extreme to the extent that national unity symbols such as the national anthem do not have lyrics because ethnic groups led by politicians cannot agree. The presidency comprises of three members from the three major ethnic groups. Also, Bosnia-Herzegovina is a country where the last name of a person determines their role in society, and ethnicity holds more weight than being a citizen of the country. An analysis of the country’s politicians indicates that they work for ethnic political parties, and parts of the nation are isolated from some ethnicities.
In Bosnia-Herzegovina, moving from one entity to another introduces a person to a different language and rules. Allegiance to a political party in the country is determined by ethnic identity. Various parties in the country press for different agendas with the interests of their ethnic groups in mind and this has resulted in the current state of the country. The above reasons and the nature of the political parties in the country prompted an exploration of the nation’s political parties and the effects they have on perceptions of who does not or belong to the country. The research question for this paper therefore is, “What is the impact of the perceptions of political parties in Bosnia-Herzegovina regarding who they consider as part of the country and those considered as outsiders?” The question is essential in explaining and understanding the reasons for the current state of the country. The paper presents an exploration of the political parties in Bosnia-Herzegovina, their perceptions and effects on the subject of belonging, and analysis of Bosnia-Herzegovina’s political system.
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Literature Review
Ethnicity and Nationalism
Identity is an essential aspect `of every human being. The concept of identity becomes complicated when it involves ethnicity, nationality, and religion, among other ambiguous groups. An individual can, for example, identify as Indian ethnically, a Muslim religiously, and a German nationalist. History indicates that ethnicity has been an antagonistic factor in human identity as most ethnic groups live with conflicting values, which in some cases cause hatred and loss of lives, as evidenced by different events such as the Bosnian wars, among others. The physical conflict has always aimed at separating different groups and singling a specific group for ostracizing or termination in adverse situations (Chadra, 2006). Ethnicity is defined and understood differently based on whether it is applied in politics, social situations, or academic settings. There are three main perspectives about forming identity-related to ethnicity, which is a creation of identity to develop ethnicity, nationalism to develop identity-based on ethnic group, and symbolic politics, which create a division among ethnic groups (Chadra, 2006). How identity is applied and understood is of considerable significance in conflict as a result of ethnic identity. According to Cruz (2000), the issues in the Balkan area related to conflict and feelings of hatred as a result of ethnic identity are caused by the creation of identity by using collective memory and nationalism that brings people together based on their shared identity.
In the present world, people are more connected than ever in both symbolic and physical ways. Nationalism, as a result, has become more important in creating unity between people living within the same borders and throughout the world. As explained by Greenfeld (2006), nationalism is the present-day culture. The modern-day society practices a culture that goes beyond values and norms but incorporates the whole system founded on identity that exceeds borders. Today, nationalism is not all about a nation. It revolves around people, which is essential in explaining how identity can cause conflict, turn individuals against one another, and develop attitudes against one another. Therefore, nationalism can be said to be a consciousness that is founded on ideas of egalitarianism and a group’s sovereignty (Greenfeld, 2006). The modern culture can be termed as nationalistic because it contains a nationalist perspective, which is projected in every aspect of society.
How the human mind understands this construction is an indication of how people relate and the ways through which social cues and behaviors are learned (Greenfeld, 2006). Politicians can create a particular collective perspective towards nationalism. From a rationalist perspective, ethnic war is caused by elites who organize masses to achieve some particular goals (Kaufman, 2001). From a psychological viewpoint, ethnic war is caused by identity, whether created or primordial, to promote the potential of a group. In contrast, the symbolic political perspective defines ethnic war as a product of emotional appeals by the elite in order to realize some group goals. As Kaufman (2001) explains, symbolic politics are based on the assumption that individuals make political choices according to emotion and reaction to symbols.
In an attempt to address the issue of nationalism, the European Union was created. The EU aims to strengthen political, social, and economic relationships between European member states (Oslen & McCormick, 2017). In 2004, a policy targeting close neighbors of the European Union was implemented to promote a relationship with the countries hence promote democracy, improve governance, human rights, economies, and the rule of law (Oslen & McCormick, 2017). By bring countries together, the EU aims to help countries put aside their nationalistic perspectives and relate with one another in beneficial ways. Based on Thomas Risse’s argument, European Union citizens can be “Europeanized” based on social constructivism framework and develop an EU identity (Zeff & Pirro, 2015). Policies such as intergovernmentalism mean that EU members can create goals and decisions internally based on the policies from negotiated results of domestic partnerships (Zeff & Pirro, 2015). State leaders then take the goals and decisions at the European Union level to realize most of them. All these efforts make an effort to deal with nationalism and create a European nation's common identity. However, current research shows that nationalism is rising again.
Case Study
Bosnia-Herzegovania’s Basics
Bosnia-Herzegovina is a representative parliamentary democracy ( Belloni, 2008 ). The republic of Srpska forms a third of the government while Bosnia and Herzegovina federation forms two-thirds. The constitution is based on the Dayton Peace Agreement that brought to an end the war in the country that occurred between 1992 and 1995 (Freedom house, 2019). The country has a three-member presidency, with each member representing the three major ethnic groups. The presidents are in charge of the state. Elections for the presidency are held after every four years. Chairing the presidency is rotational, and each of three presidents acts as the chair for eight months. Ministers are chosen by the presidency. The list of proposed ministers is presented for approval before the House of Representatives ( Bieber, 2005 ). The country has a bicameral parliament with two chambers, which are the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives.
Bosniaks are the largest ethnic group in the country, and they form approximately 48 percent of the population, according to the U.S. CIA. Serbs from the second biggest ethnic group in Bosnia-Herzegovina. They represent approximately 37.1 percent of the country’s population. They speak Serbian, an official language in the country. Literature, music, and dance, among others, are an essential aspect of their culture. Croats are the third in terms of number, and they form 14.3 percent of the population. They speak Croatian. Ethnic minorities in the country comprise 0.6 percent of the population. They include the Jewish population, Roma, and the Montenegrins, among others. Islam and Christianity are the dominant religions practiced in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Most Bosniaks are Muslims, but there are few, particularly intellectuals, who practice secularism. The majority of the Serbs are Orthodox Christians. However, Islam and a few other religions are practiced by Serbians. Most Croats are Christian Roman Catholics. People living in Bosnia-Herzegovina are involved in economic activities in different industries such as agriculture and produce products such as wheat, vegetables, and poultry among other products. They are also involved in activities related to metals such as lead, steel, and aluminum. Other activities are in the textile and mineral sectors, among others.
Bosnia-Herzegovania Elections, 2018
The most recent elections in Bosnia-Herzegovina were held on October 7, 2018. Members of the state presidency, House of Representatives, and the legislature were elected. 53.26 percent of the total population turned out for the elections. The SDA party led with 36.89 percent of the total votes cast on the side of the Bosnia-Herzegovina federation, which mainly comprise of the Bosniaks. For Croatians, the DF BH party led with 52.83 percent of the votes cast. For Republika Srpska, the SNSD party led with 53.79 percent of all the votes cast. The three presidency members elected during the 2018 elections are Sefik Dzaferovic, a Bosniak of SDA party, and Milorad Dodik, a Serb affiliated to the SNSD party ( Vishinova, 2018 ). Zeljko Komsic, a Croat of the DF party, was also elected as a member of the presidency. However, controversies arose because of the Croat presidential member; a non-nationalist candidate won against the nationalist candidate. The controversy led to protests by Croats against the Bosniaks on accusations of out-voting.
In the House of Representatives, the party of democratic action secured nine seats, which is the highest number while the alliance of independent social democrats has six seats. The social-democratic and HDZ parties have five seats each in the House of Representatives. The SDS and the Democratic Front have three seats each. Other parties, such as the Party of Democratic Progress and Our Party, among others, have two seats each. There are those who have one seat, such as the Independent Bloc and the Socialist Party, while others such as the Labor and Pensioners parties did not have any seat in the House of Representatives. Nationalist parties are the majority in the government while non-nationalist parties are few.
Notions of national belonging by political parties in Bosnia-Herzegovina
All the nationalist political parties view those who are part of the nation and those who are not from the same perspective. Non-nationalist political parties are more inclusive and aim at bringing reconciliation and unity between all the ethnic groups in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Bosnia-Herzegovina is a nation that has been occupied by Serbs, Bosnians, and Croats for many years. However, as a result of the war that occurred in 1992, causing scars that persist to date (Chandler, 2000) . The period after the war is characterized by an unresolved history and feelings of distrust among the different ethnic groups in the country. As a result of the war, there emerged new ethnic, national identities. According to nationalist political parties in Bosnia-Herzegovina, those who belong to the country are Serbs, Croats, or Bosniaks. If a person is not affiliated with one of these three ethnic groups, one may, for example, not be allowed to run for a political office such as the presidency in the country.
All the people who do not belong to the three ethnic communities are considered as outsiders. Although people from other ethnic groups, apart from the three major ones, cannot run for offices, they are expected to fulfill their civic duties such as payment of taxes. The constitutional features of the country are a major hindrance to citizenship. Unless a person declares belonging to one of the three main ethnic groups, he/she has limited rights as a citizen of Bosnia-Herzegovina. National identity based on ethnic groups is a combination of the past, ethnicity, religion, and language (Vanderwerf, 2020). These aspects are used to categorize the society into two factions, which are the “us” and “them,” which is the case of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Therefore, the Bosnia-Herzegovina can be described as a society that is dominated by ethnic-nationalism characterized by chauvinistic segregation. Daily life aspects in Bosnia-Herzegovina, such as the language used in communication to the newspaper that one reads, are judged and explained in terms of ethnicity. Consequently, explaining oneself as a Bosnia-Herzegovina citizen is equivalent to betraying national identity that is defined in terms of ethnicity. “Others” in Bosnia-Herzegovina are the ethnic minorities such as the Roma and individuals of mixed ethnicities without ethnic identification (Toal & Dahlman, 2011) .
Analysis
Alignment of case study with literature review
The Bosnia-Herzegovina situation is a real representation of the existing literature on national identity/nationalism and ethnicity. The current situation of Bosnia-Herzegovania relates to the argument made by Kaufman. According to the Kaufman (2001), the creation and development of identity for a country or ethnic group are mainly done by the political elites who apply particular rhetoric that comprises of symbolic politics intending to promote their desired image to develop their agendas. Nationalism makes being a member of a particular country an essential and honorable status, and as a result, individuals tie their dignity to their national identity. Kaufman (2001) states that politics are the main factor that promotes ethnic superiority using the symbols and oratory statements politicians make to cause violence that may lead to ethnic wars. Politicians in Bosnia-Herzegovina reinforce the issue of ethnicity and ethnic superiority. Propaganda is mostly used to send negative sentiments that instill fear or lack of certainty to those considered as outsiders. The notion that ethnic groups are the main causes of violence is explained in symbolic political theory as well as rational and psychological theories. All these explain why ethnicities provide the basis for violent conflict.
As explained by (Vanderwerf, 2020), national identity explained in terms of ethnic groups is caused by history, religion, culture, and language. This is the case in Bosnia-Herzegovina, where a person’s identity is not based on citizenship but on ethnic groups. The country’s history marked by the war that occurred in 1992 shaped national identity. As previously stated in the previous section, any person who does not identify as either a Croat, Serb, or Bosniak has limited political rights. Consequently, the notion of them and us is deeply embedded in the main ethnic groups and is further reinforced by politicians. The political elites in the country do not engage in politics whose goal is fairness for all ethnic groups, democracy, or human rights. The focus of their politics is the power that their respective ethnic groups have and political order ( Fearon & Laitin, 2000 ). The development of identity associated with ethnicity in Bosnia-Herzegovina is explained in the work of Chadra (2006). This type of identity creates division in the different ethnic groups involved, as is the case between Croats, Bosniaks, and Serbs in Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Impact of political parties’ perception of “others”
The minority groups were not represented by the political parties involved in elections because they are considered as “others.” The parties were not interested in representing minority interests in the 2018 elections. The elections were conducted along ethnic lines. Non-nationalist parties lost because they aim at uniting all the ethnic groups, especially the major ethnic groups. Nationalist parties in Bosnia-Herzegovina are characterized by hate paradigms, hence the deep ethnic divisions in the country. The “others” are not considered as constituents of the country and did not have wide participation in the elections. Moreover, they are not represented in the seats offered to political parties in the House of Representatives.
Political parties play a significant part in deepening ethnic divisions in the country because of their opinion of “others.” The perceptions harm all the ethnic groups in the country, but the ethnic minorities are the most affected. The fact that minority groups cannot participate equally in elections and get elected in high offices in the country, such as the presidency and the house of peoples, makes the situation worse for them (Refworld, 2010). The only ones allowed are the constituents who are the ethnic majority. .Emotions that are negative against a certain group or ethnicities are stipulated and advanced. If the emotional appeals to some ethnic aspects cause ideas that make one group blame the other, this consequently causes anger and a motivation to engage in a fight (Kaufman, 2001). According to the country’s constitution, ethnic minorities or anyone who does not identify with the largest ethnic communities are citizens but do not have equal political rights with the ethnic majority (Gavric et al., 2013). The country’s constitutional court made a decision relating to constituent persons in 2000. According to the decision, different areas in the country were required to outlaw some provisions that discriminate against constituents.
Serbs are incorporated as constituents of the Bosnia-Herzegovina federation. Additionally, Bosniaks and Croats were incorporated as constituents of the Republic of Srpska (Gavric et al., 2013). The changes established by the court had an impact on the “others” group because the group’s political rights, although expanded, are still limited. Collective rights to the ethnic groups that are dominant are given priority while personal rights come second. As a consequence, “others” are totally ignored by politicians because they are small in number hence not considered important ( Vishinova, 2018) . Ethnic minorities are the poorest in Bosnia-Herzegovina, and they lack access to education, housing, and cannot access healthcare like their ethnic majority counterparts (Human Rights Watch, 2019) . The limitations created by the constitution is a major hindrance to the welfare of “others.”
Conclusion
Bosnia-Herzegovina is a country in South-Eastern Europe. It is characterized by ethnonationalism, which has been growing strong over the years. The country is occupied by three major ethnic groups which are Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks. The religious practices in the country include Islam and Christianity, among others. There are ethnic minorities such as the Roma and Jews, among others. Nationalist parties emerged winners in the August 2018 national elections, and it is expected that they will dominate Bosnia-Herzegovania’s government for four years. The nationalist parties in the country protect the interests of their ethnic groups. Every person who does not identify with the three main ethnic groups is considered by the political parties, especially the nationalist ones, as not a part of the state.
Additionally, the three largest ethnic groups view each other as an outsider, even though they are in the same country. As a result, political parties use hate speech against ethnic groups that they do not belong to. They reinforce ethnicity, and that is why the 2018 general elections were marked by voting along with ethnic affiliations and protests against the non-nationalist presidential candidate. As a consequence of the deep ethnic roots and divisions in the country, politics are done along political lines. Political leaders are chosen based on their ethnic groups, and people who do not identify themselves with the three ethnic groups are limited in political participation. Besides, identity-based on one’s ethnic group is considered more important than citizenship.
Political parties represent the interests of their respective ethnic groups, and they reinforce negative perceptions against each other. The political structure harms the minority ethnic groups because they don’t have equal opportunities for education and access to health care. Because the country is much divided along ethnic lines, non-nationalist parties are not dominant, and representatives are very few in the House of Representatives and the government. This makes it hard to reconcile the country because nationalist politicians are the most dominant. Every ethnic group fights to ensure that it remains in power, represent, and take care of its interests for fear of being driven out.
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