Trauma can be defined as an adverse emotional response to a horrible and distressing event. These terrifying experiences include, among others; rape, accidents, terrorist and other forms of attacks, natural disasters or the death of a loved one (Anda, Felitti, Bremner, Walker, Whitfield, Perry, & Giles, 2006). When a person goes through a traumatic experience, it is possible for the person to develop short and long-term physical, emotional and psychological problems. As it shall be demonstrated in the summaries of the articles below, traumatic situations can lead to problems with a person’s physical health and his or her ability to manage and control emotions. Trauma represses the victim’s self-esteem, which makes it difficult for him or her to relate to other people. Trauma also inflicts adverse effects on a person’s behavior, cognitive abilities and overall socioeconomic status. The articles primarily focus on the effects of trauma on a very critical developmental age group; children. For instance, we shall learn from the article, the impact of trauma: A developmental framework for infancy and early childhood by Lieberman and Knorr, that children are very susceptible to trauma due to their fragile physical, emotional, and psychological makeup.
Lombard, S., Pullen, D., & Swabey, K. (2017). Conceptualizing trauma for children of drug addicted mothers: a developmental mapping. Journal of Trauma & Treatment , 6(1), 1-4.
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Lombard, Pullen, and Swabey begin by recognizing that children who are brought up by mothers struggling with addiction face difficulties that cause elevated levels of physical, psychological and emotional distress. They also acknowledge that apart from addicted parents, children can develop trauma-related symptoms and pathologies as a result of, physical and sexual abuse, witnessing domestic violence and other risk factors. This article was informed by a study that was undertaken to identify and relegate the effects of prolonged trauma on children who were growing up under the Parenthood of mothers contending with abortion.
The study involved a critical examination of 36 medical files of mothers who sought help from a rehabilitation facility between the year 2005 and 2011. 69children were documented in these files, and the scope in their age was between birth and 18 years (Lombard et al. 2017). The documented effects of experiences of trauma in these children were drawn out from the files and categorized as either physical, social/behavioral, emotional or cognitive.
The study found that these children, as a result of the trauma caused by growing up around addicted mothers, were significantly unstable. This instability cut across their physical health and mental health, their learning and other cognitive capabilities, and their ability to relate and associate with other people. The prolonged trauma made these children, as the study found, to withdraw from social interactions with other people (Lombard et al. 2017). These children had low self – esteem which led to the development of dissociative disorders, and in the most extreme cases prompted suicidal thoughts. They exhibited aggressiveness and restlessness. In cases where the trauma was overly prolonged, the children suffered brain damage. Physically, these children were found to be underweight or overweight. Some children suffered from involuntary defecation and urination. The impaired brain functionality in these children led to difficulty in learning activities and affected their academics as a whole.
Lombard et al. (2017) affirm these findings are similar to those of other studies that have been carried out to ascertain the effects of the trauma that children develop when they are exposed to other risk factors. They, however, stress that the consequences of trauma are most conspicuous, most severe and most perpetual in children whose parents are addicts. These effects are also firm indicators of conditions such as Major Depression (MDD), anxiety disorders, Post – Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and a host of other brain – related pathologies.
Article Two: De Bellis, M. D., & Zisk, A. (2014). The biological effects of childhood trauma. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America, 23(2), 185-222.
De Bellis and Zisk define trauma as being exposed to existent or possible death, grievous injury or sexual abuse. They acknowledge that childhood trauma poses a grave danger to the victim’s and the society as a whole. When a child goes through a traumatic incident, the body’s biological stress response mechanism becomes actuated. This mechanism prompts the body’s reaction to the traumatic situation by stimulating the brain’s fright sensing and anxiety circuits. The article focuses on how trauma impairs children’s stress response mechanism and immune system, making the children highly vulnerable to afflicted body and brain development.
The Limbic – Hypothalamic – Pituitary – Adrenal (LHPA) axis is responsible for stimulating the hypothalamus part of the brain to release a hormone that releases a neuropeptide that helps the body cope with stressful conditions (De Bellis & Zisk, 2014). Consistent exposure to trauma interrupts with the functionality of the LHPA axis. As a result of this interruption, the victims of childhood trauma develop cognitive problems and other health conditions both during childhood and in the later years of life. This interruption or re-regulation of the body’s stress response mechanism contributes to the development of eating and sexual relations difficulties and major depression.
Sensitivity and irritability seeing in young people, especially during their puberty years, can be a firm indication that those who exhibit these traits have been exposed to trauma at some point in their lives. The suppression of the functionality of the LHPA axis is the major contributory aspect to this factor as well (De Bellis & Zisk, 2014). This destruction does not occur at the same rate in all children; it varies from child to child depending on several factors, which include, among others; the severity of the trauma and the child’s physiological and genetic makeup. This variance is why the symptoms of trauma are not the same in all children who suffer from the condition.
Article Three: Lieberman, A. F., & Knorr, K. (2007). The impact of trauma: A developmental framework for infancy and early childhood. Pediatric Annals , 36(4), 209-215.
Lieberman and Knorr begin by acknowledging that there is a significant amount of research and proof affirming the impacts of traumatic situations on the development of infants and young children. They attribute the high susceptibility of children to trauma, to their very minimal perseverance and coping capabilities. The researchers explain that in the USA, violence is one of the leading causes of trauma in children, and goes ahead to delineate that 85 percent of deaths arising from abuse occur in children aged six years and below (Lieberman & Knorr, 2007). The researchers explicate that according to studies, approximately three million couples in the United States, violently abuse each other physically every year, in the presence of their children. When children go through these kinds of experiences, their traumatic stressors or agents develop aggressively.
The article makes a more startling assertion, that on a national average, children who grow up in homes where parents are violent towards each other, are fifteen times more likely to be victims of abuse themselves, than children who grow up in safe and violence – free households. This is to say that a parent who is violent towards his or her partner, is highly likely to inflict the same violence on a child being brought up in the same house. This violence can be physical, sexual or emotional (Lieberman & Knorr, 2007). Disruption in the family set –up, financial difficulties and constant relocation from one place to another, all destabilize a child’s psychological functionalities to a huge extent.
Violence interferes with the development of children, from infancy all the way to young adulthood. The effects of childhood exposure to violence include, among others; temper and behavioral troubles, being overly anxious and fearful of most situations, inability to handle difficult situations properly, dissociation from other people and limitedness in cognitive capabilities.
Analysis of the Three Articles on the Effects of Trauma on Children
In the introduction section of this write-up, trauma is defined as an adverse emotional response to a horrible and distressing event. All the three articles give the same definition, but each use different wording. For instance, in the article the biological effects of childhood trauma, De Bellis & Zisk (2014) define trauma as a negative reaction to being exposed to existent or possible death, grievous injury or sexual abuse. Lombard et al. (2017) assert that one of the major risk factors for development of trauma in children is growing up under the parenthood of addicted mothers, in their article, Conceptualizing trauma for children of drug addicted mothers: a developmental mapping . This assertion is affirmed by Lieberman & Knorr (2007) who indicate in their article, The impact of trauma: A developmental framework for infancy and early childhood, that studies show that an estimated three million couples in the America, violently abuse each other physically every year, in the presence of their children. These experiences facilitate the aggressive development of traumatic stressors or agents in the children’s bodies. Addiction is a common cause of trouble and violence in any household.
Among all the effects that trauma has on children, the ones that stand out most surround the health condition of the brain and its development. Lombard et al. (2017) point out that brain related effects of trauma on children can be used as diagnostic symptoms of conditions such as anxiety, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), phobias, major depressive disorder (MDD). To boot this averment by Lombard et al. (2017), De bellis & Zisk (2014) denote that interruptions of the functionality of the LHPA axis by trauma leads to the development of cognitive problems during childhood and in the later years of life. Lieberman & Knorr (2007) articulate that children who grow up in violent environments experience inhibited brain development as a result of trauma, which limits their learning capabilities.
It is stated in the introduction section that trauma causes short and long-term physical, emotional and psychological problems to the victims. De Bellis & Zisk (2014) delve deep into these problems by giving a detailed account of the link between trauma and an impaired stress response mechanism in their article, the biological effects of childhood trauma . The brain, which is the organ of the body that processes traumatic situations, suffers considerable damage within its systems, such as the LHPA axis, the serotonin system, and the oxytocin system. The socioeconomic problems mentioned in the introduction come in at this point. Damage to the oxytocin system makes victims experience difficulties when trying to relate or associate with other people. This interferes with the victim’s social life, ultimately affecting their academic and work life.
In conclusion, the articles provide information on the interventions that are available today for the management and treatment of trauma in children. These interventions are documented to have tremendous clinical implications in their roles of treating trauma and its effects on children and adolescents. Some of the interventions endorsed by De Bellis & Zisk (2014) in their article, The biological effects of childhood trauma, include; Trauma – Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT), Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) and Attachment and Behavioral Catch – up (ABC). Childhood Trauma is a grave psychosocial, health and policy issue that has severe effects on the victims and the society as a whole. It is encouraging to see that childhood trauma is being taken with the same seriousness as all other weighty medical and health issues. Trauma is a grievous condition, but it is entirely manageable if early diagnosis is made and the appropriate interventions are administered (Anda et al. 2006). It is imperative that substantial medical resources continue to be dedicated towards research in the area of childhood trauma.
References
Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C. H., Perry, B. D., ... & Giles, W. H. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience , 256(3), 174-186.
De Bellis, M. D., & Zisk, A. (2014). The biological effects of childhood trauma. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America, 23(2), 185-222.
Lieberman, A. F., & Knorr, K. (2007). The impact of trauma: A developmental framework for infancy and early childhood. Pediatric annals, 36(4), 209-215.
Lombard, S., Pullen, D., & Swabey, K. (2017). Conceptualizing trauma for children of drug addicted mothers: a developmental mapping. Journal of Trauma & Treatment , 6(1), 1-4.
