The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is responsible for coordinating disaster and emergency management in the USA. When a disaster happens, tribes, states, territories, and local governments can request for assistance from FEMA. Emergency response activities are guided by the National Response Framework (NRF). The current emergency response structure is a product of many changes in FEMA and the rules governing disaster response. Many of the changes were effected in the aftermath of major disasters in efforts to correct the mistakes witnessed in the management of those disasters. This paper discusses the evolution of disaster management in the USA and the roles of different levels of administration in emergency response. It also discusses key elements of emergency response in the USA such as the Incident Command System (ICS), The National Incident Management System (NIMS), and the National Response Framework (NRF).
The Evolution of Disaster Management in the USA: 1800-1970s
Before 1800, the federal government was rarely involved in disaster management. There were no clearly-defined disaster response structures that involved all levels of government. States and local authorities handled most emergency management roles. The federal government was first involved in managing a local disaster in 1803 (FEMA, n.d) . Congress allowed the federal government to give financial help to a town in New Hampshire that had been affected by fire (FEMA, n.d) . In 1917, the government made the first attempt to formalize emergency response by developing the Regulations Governing Flood Relief Work in the War Department (Osborne, 2006). Despite the effort, the federal government was only involved in disaster management on a case-by-case basis until the 1950s. In the 1930s, the Reconstruction Finance Corporation and the Bureau of Public Roads were allowed to advance repair and reconstruction loans to areas affected by disasters (FEMA, n.d) . In 1934, Congress enacted The Flood Control Act, giving the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers flood control duties (Osborne, 2006).
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The 1950s witnessed major changes in emergency response systems in the USA. Congress enacted the Federal Disaster Relief Act; the new law allowed the federal government to give funds to state and local governments in order to lessen the impact of disasters (Mener, 2007). The increased risk of external attacks during the Cold War led to the integration of disaster management in civil defense. Almost every state and local government now had a civil defense director (FEMA, n.d) . The Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA) was tasked with providing technical assistance to lower levels of government during disasters (Olshansky & Johnson, 2014). By the 1970s, disaster management roles were spread over several departments, such as the Federal Disaster Assistance Administration and the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) (Olshansky & Johnson, 2014). There was need to bring the duties under one body for more efficient coordination. This led to the formation of FEMA in 1978. Most disaster management duties were transferred to FEMA. The Incident Command System (ICS) and the initial version of the National Incident Management System (NIMS) were developed in the 1970s.
The Incident Command System (ICS)
The ICS was developed in the 1970s in the aftermath of a series of wildfires in California (Lindell, Perry, & Prater, 2005). The response to those wildfires was not effective as there were coordination problems among the different responders. Some of the challenges encountered were non-standard communication, inadequate resources, and an unmanageable span of control (Lindell, Perry, & Prater, 2005). The ICS was initially a fire response control system, but with time, it was adopted in the management of other disasters. The ICS allows multiple agencies to coordinate disaster response without interfering with the roles and authority of the local command (FEMA, 2018) . It also ensures that the pressing needs are addressed fast, risks are mitigated, and there is no duplication and wastage of resources (FEMA, 2018) . That is achieved by having a unified command structure, using standard terminologies, and centralizing resource management and allocation.
The Incident Command System assigns one incident commander to coordinate disaster response activities such as requesting for and distributing resources, deploying equipment, and assigning roles to personnel. A unified command enables local, state, federal, and non-governmental emergency response agencies to work together seamlessly during disasters (FEMA, 2018) . Incident command systems typically have five units: command, finance, logistics, planning, and operations sections.
The Stafford Act
Following the formation of FEMA in 1978, the agency underwent leadership and policy changes in the 1980s (FEMA, n.d) . It also faced numerous challenges that stretched its capacity. In 1988, Congress enacted the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Stafford Act). The aims of the Stafford Act were to enhance coordination between different levels of government during disasters, provide federal assistance to areas and citizens affected by disasters, and encourage state and local governments to come up with disaster preparedness plans ( Moss, Schellhamer, & Berman, 2009 ).
The Stafford Act created the program of providing federal assistance to disaster-hit areas following an emergency declaration or a presidential disaster declaration ( Moss, Schellhamer, & Berman, 2009 ). The act required the President to appoint a federal coordinating officer following a disaster or emergency declaration (Congress, n.d) . The role of the federal coordinating officer is to assess the assistance needed and coordinate disaster response efforts. The Stafford Act also gave the President powers to advance grants to states to help them prepare for disasters (Congress, n.d) . One of the notable features of the Stafford Act was the amendment of disaster and emergency declaration procedures prescribed by the Disaster Relief Act of 1974. Once a disaster happens, the Stafford Act requires the governor of the state where the disaster happened to evaluate the disaster and execute the state emergency plan (Congress, n.d) . If the disaster is beyond the state’s capacity, the governor should notify the President and request for help. Depending on the severity of the disaster, the president can declare an emergency or a major disaster (Congress, n.d) . The Stafford Act has been revised several times.
The National Incident Management System
Though the National Incident Management Systems (NIMS) was first published in 2004, its history can be traced back to the 1970s. In the aftermath of devastating fires in California and ineffective response to those disasters, federal agencies and the lower levels of administration came together to develop the Firefighting Resources of California Organized for Potential Emergencies (FIRESCOPE) system (FEMA, 2017) . This system contained the Incident Command System (ICS) and the Multiagency Coordination System (MACS) (FEMA, 2017) . FIRESCOPE was developed to enhance interoperability in fire response (FEMA, 2017) .
The National Interagency Incident Management System (NIIMS) was created in 1982. It expanded the application of ICS and MACS to include other types of disasters. Following the terror attacks of 2001, the Department of Homeland Security saw the need to create an integrated incident management system and standardize disaster response processes and terminologies (FEMA, 2017) . That led to the development of NIMS. FEMA published the first version of NIMS in 2004 (FEMA, 2017) . The primary purposes of NIMS are to ensure flexibility in disaster management, enhance unity of effort, and promote standardization.
The National Response Framework
The National Response Framework (NRF) outlines the roles of different entities in disaster response. These entities include non-governmental organizations, federal emergency response agencies, states, and local governments. It also outlines the guiding principles and best practices in emergency response. The NRF does not substitute NIMS; it is built on the concepts of NIMS. The primary goal of the NRF is to create unity of purpose between different disaster response entities, including communities and the private sector.
The National Response Framework describes the roles of different bodies in emergency management as follows.
Nongovernmental organizations
The NRF officially designates some nongovernmental organizations as key support elements to national emergency response. They include the American Redcross, National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster (National VOAD), and the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children (NCMEC) (FEMA, 2016) . These and other NGOs play important roles in emergency response at local, tribal, state, and national levels. Their roles include training volunteers, identifying those in need of emergency services and commodities, and providing emergency care.
Emergency response at the local level
Emergency response efforts at the local level are overseen by jurisdictional chief executives and local emergency managers (FEMA, 2016) . Jurisdictional chief executives are responsible for providing information to the public, requesting assistance from other government agencies, and providing emergency response directions. The local emergency manager is in charge of day-to-day disaster management activities.
Emergency response at the tribal level
Tribes work together with local administrations and states in emergency response. The Stafford Act allows Indian tribal governments to request for presidential emergency declaration (Congress, n.d) . The chief executive of the tribe is responsible for emergency response coordination, requesting for assistance from government agencies, and communicating with the public.
Emergency response at the state level
States supplement the emergency management efforts of local and tribal governments. When the lower governments are overwhelmed, they can request for assistance from the state. If the state cannot handle the disaster, it can request for assistance from private partners and federal disaster management agencies. Parties involved in emergency response at the state level include the National Guard, the state emergency management agency director, the Governor, and state homeland security advisers (FEMA, 2016) .
Emergency response at the federal level
The federal government responds to emergency assistance request from the lower levels of government, mainly through FEMA. Parties involved in emergency response at the federal level are the President, the Secretary of Homeland Security, the Secretary of Defense, FEMA administrator, the Attorney General, the Director of National Intelligence, and the Secretary of State (FEMA, 2016) .
In summary, emergency response policies and procedures in the USA have undergone various changes over the years. These changes are effected to make emergency response more effective and enhance cooperation among different emergency response bodies. Key events that shaped emergency response in the USA are the Cold War, California wildfires of the 1970s, the Stafford Act; the 2001 terror attacks; Hurricane Katrina; and the development of the ICS, NRF, and NIMS. Today, emergency response is handled collectively by different levels of government,
References
Congress. (n.d). H.R.2707 - Major Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Amendments of 1987. Retrieved October 30, 2019, from Congress: https://www.congress.gov/bill/100th-congress/house-bill/2707
FEMA. (2016, June). National Response Framework. Retrieved October 30, 2019, from FEMA: https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1466014682982-9bcf8245ba4c60c120aa915abe74e15d/National_Response_Framework3rd.pdf
FEMA. (2017, October). National Incident Management System. Retrieved October 30, 2019, from FEMA: https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1508151197225-ced8c60378c3936adb92c1a3ee6f6564/FINAL_NIMS_2017.pdf
FEMA. (2018, March). ICS Review Document. Retrieved October 30, 2019, from NIMS Resource Center: https://training.fema.gov/emiweb/is/icsresource/assets/ics%20review%20document.pdf
FEMA. (n.d). Introduction to Crisis, Disaster, and Risk. Retrieved October 30, 2019, from FEMA: https://training.fema.gov/history.aspx
Lindell, M. K., Perry, R. W., & Prater, C. S. (2005, October). Organizing response to disasters with the incident command system/incident management system (ICS/IMS). In International workshop on emergency response and rescue (pp. 1-6).
Mener, A. S. (2007). Disaster response in the United States of America: An analysis of the bureaucratic and political history of a failing system. CUREJ-College Undergraduate Research Electronic Journal , 63.
Moss, M., Schellhamer, C., & Berman, D. A. (2009). The Stafford Act and priorities for reform. Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management , 6 (1).
Olshansky, R. B., & Johnson, L. A. (2014). The evolution of the federal role in supporting community recovery after US disasters. Journal of the American Planning Association , 80 (4), 293-304.
Osborne, W. A. (2006). The History of Military Assistance for Domestic Natural Disasters: The Return to a Primary Role for the Department of Defense in the Twenty-First Century?. Army Law. , 1.
U.S Department of Homeland Security. (2016). National Response Framework. Retrieved October 30, 2019, from FEMA: https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1466014682982-9bcf8245ba4c60c120aa915abe74e15d/National_Response_Framework3rd.pdf
