The process bone development requires a supply of many essential nutrients.The bone tissue constitutes of crystals of hydroxyapatite, glycoproteins, proteoglycans and other ions that are embedded in collagen. These tissues are developed from dietary amino acids, ions, and vitamins. Therefore diet has a role to play in the development of bones in children.
Like other body tissues, the bone also undergoes metabolism processes. As a result, diet plays a role in ensuring that the bone mass is preserved by supplying the required nutrients. Therefore older adults require a balanced diet to help with bone maintenance.
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2.
Parathormone helps in maintain blood calcium levels in the blood by stimulating its release from the bones through bone resorption. Parathormone also decreases calcium loss in urine by increasing its reabsorption in the kidneys and also increases its absorption in the small intestines. Therefore parathormone serves to increase blood calcium levels.
Calcitonin hormone plays the role of inhibiting the activity of the osteoclasts and stimulates the osteoblasts. Thus calcitonin reduces the levels of calcium in the blood.
3.
The movements at synovial joints include gliding, special movement, angular movement, and rotational movement. Gliding is a movement of where two flat bones move past each other. Angular movements in synovial joints include changes in angles such as flexion, abduction, circumduction, adduction or hyperextension (Gray & Carter, 2010). Rotational movements occur when a bone movements around its axis. The special movements are non-classified and include inversion, retraction, and supination.
4.
The diagnostic tests for tissue trauma include MRI, ultrasound, CT scan or myelogram and electro diagnostics.
5.
Bursae is a critical part of the synovial joint as it serves to provide cushion between bones, tends and muscles that around the joint. The cushioning reduces friction between within the joint and allowing it move freely.
6.
Before stimulation, the muscle cells have slight negative electric polarization since the interior is negative compared to the surrounding extracellular fluid. The polarization is a result of high concentration of positive sodium ions on the outside and high concentration of negative chloride ions in the inside the muscle cell (Gray & Carter, 2010). When the muscle cells are stimulated the sodium ions diffuses to the internal environment of the cells causing a shift to a less-negative polarization.
7.
The sources of ATP for muscle contraction include adenosine triphosphate which provides the required energy. When the ATP is depleted, the muscle it resynthesized from sources such as creatine phosphate and muscular glycogen.
8.
The sebaceous glands are located adjacent to the hair follicles and are responsible for the production of sebum that lubricates the skin enabling to remain soft and moist (Gray & Carter, 2010). The sebum also keeps the hair moist.
The sweat glands are duct glands that open to the skin surface. The sweat glands secrete sweat which could be thin or viscous. The thin sweat is secreted from the eccrine sweat glands while apocrine sweat glands secrete viscous sweat.
9.
The five layers of the epidermis include:
Strutm basale
Stratum spinosum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum corneum
10.
On exposure to heat, sweat is released to the skin surface, and its evaporation serves to cool the body temperature. A person who is born without sweat glands does not benefit from the cooling effect of sweating and hence they can die from exposure to heat.
11.
The hypothalamus works as a command center for the autonomic nervous system to control functions such as heartbeat, breathing and blood vessel constrictions. The result of the command is that gives the body a burst of energy that is used to respond in ‘fight or flight’ situation.
12.
The two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic system, which stimulates and involves energy expenditure, and the parasympathetic system, which is mainly restorative.
13.
The outermost layer of the eye is called the fibrous layer consisting of the sclera and the cornea.
14.
During the adolescent stage, the process of bone formation is at its peak and hence the need for increased calcium absorption. Therefore there secretion and action of calcitonin is important among adolescents than the adults.
15.
The pancreas is referred to as a “mixed gland” because having both endocrine and exocrine functions. The pancreas plays the role of an endocrine gland by secreting insulin into the bloodstream. As an exocrine gland, the pancreas produces digestive enzymes.
16.
The new mothers experience cramps in the lower abdomen as a result of uterine contraction to regain its pre-pregnancy size.
17.
It is important to for calcium levels in the blood to be maintained as it plays key roles in signaling cell functions, facilitating blood clotting, muscle contraction and also nerve functions.
18.
Homeostatic regulation enables the body to maintain the internal body temperature by making physiologic adjustments such as blood vessel dilation. The ears and the nose lose a lot of heat due to their size and relatively large exposure. As a result, the arterioles and capillaries in the nose and the ears dilate to increase blood flow to these regions during very cold winter days to prevent their temperature from dropping further. The dilation results in increased blood flow to the area and hence causing the reddening.
19.
The decreased hormone production among the elderly causes:
Increased fatigue
Decreased immune function
Decrease in lean body and bone mass
20.
a).
Shivering is a reflex action that is aimed at maintaining body temperature by causing contractions in skeletal muscles to produce heat. Nerves located in the skin detect the lowering body temperature and send signals that activate the medullary neurons (Gray & Carter, 2010). The result is that the hypothalamus is activated causing increased muscular activity.
Sweating is aimed at regulating the body temperature and is controlled by the hypothalamus. The skin receptors for temperature control the heat regulatory function and set the point for the sweating. The sweat is produced by the sweat glands located in the skin.
b).
Variations in skin color are based primarily on the presence of melanin in an individual. Melanin is mainly located in the epidermis area of the skin and is produced by melanocytes cells (Gray & Carter, 2010). Melanin is produced into forms which include pheomelanin which is red to yellow in color and the eumelanin which tends to have a dark brown or black coloration. These differences are responsible for the variations in skin color.
c).
The skin has a rich blood supply, and as a result, numerous vessels are located in its layers. As a result, any alterations in the blood physiology as a result of the accumulation of wastes can result in abnormal coloration of the skin. For example, in cyanosis, the skin has a bluish coloration as a result of increased levels of deoxygenated hemoglobin. In jaundice, the alteration in coloration to yellow color occurs as a result of increased bilirubin levels in the blood.
d).
Acne is characterized by darkened skin patches and may result in scarring. The disease occurs due to clogging of the hair follicles located in the skin which are clogged with a mixture of dead skin and oil. As a result, the clogging leads to the formation of pigmentation scar.
21.
Ultraviolet damage as a result of sun exposure is one of the contributing factors in the development of scalp cancer. The higher exposure of men to sun leads to the increased cases of scalp cancer compared to women.
22.
a).
The lips tend to be more pink or red when compared to the palm of the hands. This is caused by the presence of a higher number of blood vessels that leads to increased blood supply to lips. The epidermis also allows more visibility of the blood vessels in the lips since it is thinner and less keratinized (Gray & Carter, 2010). The papillae in the lips also tend to be closer to the surface as compared to the palm of the hand hence the difference in skin coloration.
b).
Individuals who do manual labor develop thicker stratum corneum in their palms compared to those who do not engage in manual labor. The thick epidermis tends to mask the underlying blood vessels and as a result reducing their visibility. Carotene accumulation in the stratum corneum imparts a yellowish cast on the palms of persons who do manual labor.
c).
The posterior surface of the forearm tends to appear darker as a result of the tanning effect of the ultraviolet rays which does not affect the posterior surface.
d).
There is a higher concentration of melanin in the genital area, and as a result, they tend to be darker when compared to the soles of the feet.
23.
Bone healing is influenced by factors such as the age of the patients with younger individuals having a faster rate compared to the elderly. The nutrition of the individual also determines the healing process as it supplies the required nutrients. Systemic hormones such as corticosteroids also influence the healing process. The form of bone tissue involved also has a role in influencing the healing process.
24.
Dietary vitamins are critical to bone health as it facilitates the process of calcium absorption in the small intestines, kidneys which are critical in the rebuilding of the bones. The minerals such as magnesium are critical in the mineralization of bones, and they synergize the vitamins in ensuring bone health. The hormones play an integral role as they control the bone maintenance and remodeling.
References
Gray, H., & Carter, H. (2010). Gray’s anatomy. London: Arcturus.
