The definition of the term bilingualism is very complex and is usually influenced by various factors, for instance, the sustained exposure to an individual’s first language, the age at which one acquired the second language, an individual’s relative proficiency in each language, and the set of conditions which influenced the acquisition of each language (Pelham & Abrams, 2014). The commonly accepted definitions of the word bilingualism conceptualize the knowledge of different languages as a binary category. However, various studies argue that bilingualism should be perceived on a continuum basis – one may possess different levels of expertise in two languages, irrespective of when and how the language was acquired. In its simplest form, the term bilingualism may be defined as an individual’s capacity to understand and use two languages regularly. The assessment of an individual’s level of bilingualism depends on various factors; these factors include a person’s capacity to effectively listen and understand each language, one’s ability to speak each language, read and comprehend, and lastly, one’s ability to write in each language (Pelham & Abrams, 2014). Bilingualism has also been associated with various pros and cons, for instance, cognitive advantages and lexical access deficits respectively. The paper will critically assess the pros and cons of bilingualism.
Bilingualism has various cognitive advantages. Lehtonen, Soveri, Laine, and Antfolk (2018) reveal that bilinguals tend to be highly adept at language learning as opposed to monolinguals. Additionally, Lehtonen et al. (2018) reveal that bilinguals also exhibit an enhanced executive functioning of the brain and have a significantly reduced risk for mental disorders, for instance, dementia. The brain of a bilingual often relies on executive functions to sustain the relative balance amid the two languages. Executive functions refer to the regulatory structure of established cognitive abilities; this incorporates processes, for example, inhibition and attention (Lehtonen et al., 2018). Since both language systems within a bilingual individual’s brain are usually competing and active, a bilingual person often utilizes these control mechanisms (executive functions) every time he or she listens or speaks; this continuous practice bolsters the control mechanisms and initiates the required changes in the associated regions of the brain. Moreover, bilingualism enhances an individual’s capacity to perform better on assignments that involve conflict management (Petham & Abrams, 2014). A bilingual’s cognitive system usually employs additional resources to ignore irrelevant information and center on the data that is relevant; this capacity to ignore disregard competing for perceptual data by an individual’s cognitive system and focus on the corresponding elements of input is commonly referred to as inhibitory control (Petham & Abrams, 2014). Bilinguals, therefore, perform better than their counterparts (monolinguals) at duties that require inhibitory control skills. Additionally, bilinguals are generally better than their peers (monolinguals) at switching amid two tasks; this reflects better cognitive control in changing strategies amid duties (Yang, Hartanto, & Yang, 2018).
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Secondly, bilingualism promotes significant changes in neurological structure and processing mechanisms in bilinguals (Lehtonen et al., 2018). Lehtonen et al . (2018) suggest that the advantages associated with the brain's executive functions among bilinguals are not restricted to the language networks of the brain. A study conducted by Yang, Hartanto, and Yang (2018) reveals that bilinguals often exhibit increased activation in the DLPFC (Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex), a region in the brain linked with cognitive skills such as inhibition and attention in instances where they perform roles that require their ability to alternate amid two languages. Language switching also involves other structures such as the ACC (Anterior Cingulate Cortex), the left-IFG, and the bilateral super-marginal gyri; these regions also play significant roles in cognitive control (Yang, Harntanto, & Yang, 2018).
The neurological advantages of bilingualism also extend to the subcortical brain region which is conventionally connected with sensory processing. The neural response of bilinguals is usually larger than that of monolinguals; this reflects an enhanced cognitive capacity to encode the fundamental frequency of sounds (an element of sound closely associated with pitch perception). Bilinguals, therefore have greater blood flow in the brain stem (an indicator of neuronal activity) in response to specific sounds; this subsequently generates significant benefits associated with auditory attention. Moreover, high competency in a second language and the earlier acquisition of the language corresponds with a significantly high volume of grey matter in the Left Inferior Parietal Cortex (Yang, Harntanto, & Yang, 2018). Yang, Harntanto, and Yang (2018) associates this phenomenon with uncontrolled switching between languages implying that it may play a critical role in maintaining the balance amid two languages. Thirdly, Pelham and Abrams (2014) associate bilingualism with improved learning experiences. The improvements in sensory and cognitive processing conditioned by bilingual experience may assist a bilingual individual to process data in the environment effectively; this, in turn, leads to a clearer learning signal. Pelham and Abrams (2014) suggest that bilingualism positively influences conflict management and attention.
Lastly, bilingualism protects against age-related declines. The neurological and cognitive advantages of bilingualism also advance into adulthood in the sense that it provides an expedient of fending off the natural cognitive function decline and maintaining a cognitive reserve (the effective utilization of the networks of the brain to promote the efficient functioning of the brain during aging) (Lehtonen et al., 2018). Bilingualism contributes to this procedure by promoting the sharpness of the brain’s cognitive mechanisms and playing a significant role in the process of recruiting other networks of the brain to compensate for the damaged networks during aging. Older bilinguals, therefore, enjoy improved executive control and memory compared to older monolinguals which subsequently generates significant health benefits. Bilingualism also protects against disorders that enhances this decline such as Alzheimer’s disease.
Bilingualism has also been associated with various cons. One major drawback associated with bilingualism involves the issue of lexical access and competence. Lexical access refers to the procedure that involves the activation of the fundamental and sound-meaning connections of a particular language, for instance, lexical entries (Pelham & Abrams, 2014). Individuals who speak two or more languages undergo two primary procedures: The retrieval process and the mental lexicon process (Pelham & Abrams, 2014). The procedures mentioned above foster the capacity of bilinguals to effectively recall vocabularies, meanings, and pronunciations to identify and comprehend words in both languages. Bilingual children may experience developmental benefits when learning words since they are usually less constrained by various precepts, for example, Mutual Exclusivity (Pelham & Abram, 2014). Although they typically have a smaller range of knowledge concerning the vocabularies contained in the different languages than their counterparts (monolinguals), the differences in expertise are usually detrimental to their achievement academically. However, because words contained in the unwanted language compete with those listed in the intended language, lexical selection amid bilinguals becomes an increasingly demanding procedure as opposed to their counterparts (Pelham & Abrams, 2014).
The lexicons in both languages are therefore activated in bilinguals at all phases of their language production process, even in instances where an individual is in a monolingual mode. As a consequence, the retrieval of words, therefore, becomes slower among bilinguals irrespective of their ages than in monolinguals (Pelham & Abrams, 2014). Research conducted at the University of Florida revealed that early bilinguals experience problems associated with lexical access. The study involved thirty English speakers (monolingual), thirty late bilinguals (English-Spanish), and thirty early bilinguals (Spanish-English). Secondly, bilingualism may cause individuals to experience language difficulties due to consistent linguistic competition (Pelham & Abrams, 2014). For example, the knowledge of more than one language may cause individuals to name aspects such as pictures more slowly than monolinguals and may enhance features such as tip-of-the-tongue states. As a consequence, the continuous juggling of two languages may create an increasing need to control or manage a person’s consistency in utilizing a particular language at a specific time.
References
Lehtonen, M., Soveri, A., Laine, A., Jarvenpaii, J., de Bruin, A., & Antfolk, J. (2018). Is Bilingualism Associated with Enhanced Executive Functioning in Adults? A Meta-Analytic Review. Psychological Bulletin , 144(4), 394–425.
Yang, H., Hartanto, A., & Yang, S. (2018). Bilingualism confers advantages in task switching: Evidence from the dimensional change card sort task. Bilingualism: Language & Cognition , 21(5), 1091–1109.
Pelham, S. D., & Abrams, L. (2014). Cognitive Advantages and Disadvantages in Early and Late Bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory & Cognition , 40(2), 313–325.
