Part 1
One of my personal biases is towards Islam as a religion. I consider Muslims hypocrites as some of the adherents to this religion commit acts of terrorism in the name of religion where they kill and maim innocent individuals. I also consider minorities such as blacks, Latinos and African-Americans as intruders that leave their homes to come bother others while engaging in criminal acts like drug peddling and theft. I also abhor poverty and consider individuals of poor economic status as lazy and idle as they fear reasoning and lack self-belief.
Such personal biases can impact negatively on the quality of counselling services provided to clients. For instance, when using client-centered therapy, the biases can inhibit the development of quality relationships with clients from minority races and those that are Muslims. Such occurrences can make the counsellor settle on recommendations that are suboptimal when dealing with clients from minority races and those that are Muslims due to problems in the disclosure process. Also, the biases can influence the behaviour of the counsellor in situations where he is interviewing a client from a minority race.
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Due to the biases, the counsellor can ask unpleasant questions or demonstrate behavioural cues through the facial expressions and body language that negatively impact on the willingness of the client to engage. The biases can make the counsellor engage in subtle or blatant acts of premature interventions and racial slurs that disenfranchise the clients and make them develop negative perceptions towards the counselling process and pull out altogether. Such acts can exacerbate the client’s problems rather than find solutions as they demoralize the client and culminate to the loss of hope due to disappointments by the client in the therapeutic process.
One of the experiences with discrimination was when we engaged in local sporting activities in the neighbourhood and as we went home, most of our colleagues that were blacks could be arrested by the police for no apparent reason. We could later learn that they have been taken to court on trumped-up charges. Some even ended in local remands if they could not raise the police or court bonds. Such forms of racial discrimination on blacks by the law enforcement officers was rampant and is still subject to raging debates due to the overrepresentation of minority races in incarceration facilities like jails.
Another experience was in movies that I attended where actors depicted as criminals were often black. I realized that such activities reinforce negative racial attitudes as they tend to project whites as superior, well-behaved and gifted in comparison to minority races such as blacks. The activities are akin to racial profiling and reinforce discrimination in society.
One of the memories of contact with blacks and Latinos was in high school where my desk mate was Latino. I also used to be in study groups with blacks. My experiences with these differences are that they are only outward in the physical characteristics like skin and hair colour. However, there were no notable differences in the level of performance as in more than one occasion blacks could emerge top in class and in other activities like sports. Also, there were cultural differences as some of the minorities were oriented to high-context cultures while whites are oriented to low-context cultures.
Life experiences have taught me to spend time and understand the culture of another person to ensure I demonstrate cultural sensitivity. It ensures I do not annoy such a person unwillingly as cultural awareness is vital in demonstrating mutual respect that creates healthy bonds. For example, when I am with blacks I do not like discussing topics like slavery as they perceive it as a mockery of their forefathers that were enslaved and treated inhumanely.
Part 2
A subtle racist is an individual that engages in racist acts in ways that are not discernible due to the lack of conscious awareness that the acts are racist in nature (Leong & Lau, 2001). For example, a police officer investigating a robbery may arrest a black person he meets in the vicinity but not a white man. He can claim the act is guided by his expertise in crime investigation and after all, the suspect will be released if investigations reveal non-involvement. It demonstrates one of the characteristics of subtle racism as the acts that are deemed racist can also be justified by other causes, other than racism as the explanation of the actions by the police officer.
There could be significant differences in the perceptions and values of members within the same ethnic group due to the prevalence of different social groups in the ethnic group that are different in status. For example, individuals within the same ethnic group can have different economic capabilities where some are poor and others are wealthy. Such two social groups i.e. poor and wealthy in that ethnic group can exhibit distinct beliefs and values emanating from their differences in economic status. The poor can develop perceptions that the wealthy are discriminatory and unjust towards others. However, the wealthy can have perceptions that they are fair and just as their riches are a reflection of their genuine efforts and sacrifice.
Part 3
The ACA and NAADAC code of ethics will ensure I engage in communication practices that are culturally sensitive. The codes will act as guides in facilitating the adoption of communication methods that uphold the dignity of clients to ensure they benefit from the counselling process. They will also ensure that I demonstrate cultural sensitivity when dealing with clients from other races. The codes will guide professional practice so that the counselling activities do not elicit cultural bias or favouritism towards certain clients due to their origins, religion, gender, ethnicity or race.
The ACA code A.2.c will inform practice by ensuring I adopt communication methods that are culturally sensitive when informing clients of their right to informed consent ( American Counseling Association, 2014) . In case there are language barriers, this code will guide actions such as engaging an interpreter to ensure clients understand the information being communicated.
The ACA code A.4.b will ensure I do not impose my personal values and attitudes on clients. The code will also guide my practice where I can see training in case my personal values are inconsistent with the goals of the client. Also, code B.1.a will guide in upholding cultural sensitivity towards the meanings clients make of the privacy and confidentiality requirements. Code C5 will further offer guidance to ensure none of the counselling practices elicits discrimination in areas such as gender, religion, relationship status, and ethnicity amongst others.
Code V in the NAADAC code of ethics will enhance my understanding of how individuals generate perceptions of the world due to their ethnicity and culture (The Association of Addiction Professionals, 2015). It will ensure I develop proactive measures to accommodate the needs of clients with disabilities in areas such as hearing or speaking that may not be apparent.
Cultural sensitivity in treatment planning is crucial as it shapes the development of positive perceptions by clients towards the counselling process regardless of the cultural orientations of the counsellor ( Sue & Sue, 2016) . Such positive perceptions can be nurtured through simple acts such as handshakes, eye-to-eye contact, greetings and engaging in general discussions in the initial stages of the counselling relationship. Cultural sensitivity makes the clients develop positive first impressions that are essential in enhancing the level of motivation, engagement and commitment towards the counselling process.
Cultural sensitivity is also crucial in generating rapport between the counsellor and the client before focusing on the treatment. Such rapport is necessary in making the client feel at ease and disclose as much information as possible to aid the treatment process.
It is necessary for the counsellor to integrate the treatment planning process with information and themes that are culturally relevant. The integration of such information enhances the level of connectedness between the client and the counsellor. However, such information and themes can only be integrated into the process if the counsellor demonstrates cultural sensitivity that eliminates stereotypical behaviours and prejudices (Sussman, 2007).
In such scenarios, it becomes easier for the counsellor to nurture collaborative relationships with the client that is necessary in the interviewing process. It indicates that cultural sensitivity of the counsellor minimizes the development of perceptions by the client that the treatment process is intrusive or unfair (Nansen, 2010). It also eradicates feelings of distrust thereby facilitating active engagement between the counsellor and the client.
Communication styles and help-seeking behaviours differ amongst cultures where individuals from high-context or collectivist cultures adopt indirect and implicit communication styles and help-seeking behaviours. However, in low-context cultures, communication and help-seeking behaviours are direct and explicit and can be discerned from verbal cues expressed by an individual. In high-context cultures, the message being communicated is not discernible from verbal expressions but is hidden in other cues such as facial expressions and general body language.
Strategies to build rapport differ across cultures. When dealing with individuals from low-context cultures, it is necessary to learn their language as rapport can be built through verbal engagements and persuasions that facilitate exchange of ideas. However, when dealing with individuals from high-context cultures, it is necessary to build rapport through nonverbal expressions such as facial expressions and conduct. Also, in high-context culture environments, rapport can be built through sharing meals and demonstrating respect to experts and elders and often consulting them as such practices are held in high-regard in such communities (Topkaya, Vogel & Brenner, 2017).
One of the reasons for differential treatment methods is cognitive differences in the perceptions that individuals from different cultures have towards the causes, nature and cure for different conditions such as mental illnesses (Leong & Lau, 2001). The beliefs and norms towards diseases are influenced by cultural orientation.
For instance, some Asians believe there is no difference between mental and physical problems as the regard the body as one. However, in most western societies, the body and mind are considered different. It means the Asians may seek help for mental problems from medical doctors while westerners are likely to visit a psychologist or counsellor.
Affective barriers also lead to differential treatment methods. The willingness of individuals to visit care centres and report health problems is influenced by cultural nuances such as perceptions of shame and ridicule that impacts negatively on disclosure (Hansen, 2010). Most collectivist societies denounce some ailments and refuse to seek treatment due to the fear of ‘loss of face.’
There is variability in the ability of individuals to respond to medications due to racial, ethnic, and lifestyle orientations ( Comas-Díaz, 2006) . Differences in the metabolic responses of individuals to medications coupled with other factors such as age, gender and family history impacts on the safety and efficacy of prescribed drugs. Clinicians also fail to appreciate their cultural orientation and make decisions that are premised on racial, ethnic and religious biases ( American Psychological Association, 2003) .
Counsellor cultural bias can emanate from being driven by perceptions rather than facts on an individual to determine the main procedures to inform the counselling activities. The counsellor may also seek to align the activities on other practices by professionals that have handled the client.
Some of the resources to inform cultural diversity issues include books on cultures and practices, studies and journals that relate different practices amongst cultures.
The learning can be applied to inform counselling practices in regions that are inhabited by individuals from different cultures.
References
American Counseling Association. (2014). ACA Code of Ethics . Retrieved on 4 th May 2018 from
https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiSsu7lkuzaAhXGQo8KHXbHDk4QFggnMAA&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.counseling.org%2Fresources%2Faca-code-of-ethics.pdf&usg=AOvVaw0dBwzv5CYVOFQIq54SkxK2
American Psychological Association. (2003). Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists. American Psychologist , 58 (5):377-402.
Comas-Díaz, L. (2006). Latino Healing: The Integration of Ethnic Psychology into Psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Theory Research & Practice , 43 (4): 453-463.
Hansen, J. (2010). Counseling and Psychoanalysis: Advancing the Value of Diversity . Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development , 38(1): 16-26.
Leong, F. & Lau, A. (2001). Barriers to Providing Effective Mental Health Services to Asian Americans. Mental Health Services Research, 3 : 201-214.
Nansen, J. (2010). Counseling and Psychoanalysis: Advancing the Value of Diversity. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development , 38(1): 16.
Sue, D. & Sue, D. (2016). Counseling the Culturally Diverse: Theory and Practice (7 th ed). Hoboken. John Wiley & Sons.
Sussman, L. (2007). Prejudice and Behavioral Archetypes: A New Model for Cultural - Diversity Training. Business Communication Quarterly , 60(1): 7-18.
The Association of Addiction Professionals. (2015). NAADAC Code of Ethics . Retrieved on 4 th May 2018 from https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjVi8G5k-zaAhUY4o8KHZSpBL4QFggpMAE&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.naadac.org%2Fcode-of-ethics&usg=AOvVaw3Kdo28qviL7M41FlkpZ_Yy
Topkaya, N., Vogel, D. & Brenner, R. (2017). Examination of the Stigmas toward Help- seeking among Turkish College Students. Journal of Counseling & Development , 95(2): 213-225.
