What is False Memory Syndrome?

Memory is one of the most important functions of the brain, as it allows individuals to store information and recall it later, which occurs in three distinct stages. The three stages of memory are encoding storage and retrieval. When examining the functionality of the brain, one of the key aspects that researchers focus on is trying to determine the impacts associated with memory on one's behavior or functionality. In some cases, the memory that one creates is not as accurate as may be expected considering that the event that a person recalls is different from the way it happened or never happened in its entirety. Patihis, Frenda, and Loftus (2018) indicate that false memories are often held with high levels of confidence for the persons involved, which makes it hard in trying to differentiate them from true memories. Much attention has been placed on the effects associated with false memories in both children and adults considering that such memories often distort their views on a given subject.

Key Points 

False memories occur as mental experiences, which are considered as being veridical representations of events that occurred in the past. The main challenge that occurs when examining false memories is that it becomes hard to distinguish them from true memories while considering that they all represent what one recalls. Howe, Cicchetti, Toth and Cerrito (2004) build a view that suggests that mental experiences can be attributed to memory (or not) taking into account qualitative characteristics, such as perpetual details, and embedded beliefs. Memory attributions often influence the context within which one recalls an event. Therefore, it becomes much easier for individuals to formulate a false memory that is not only inaccurate but reflects on their personal beliefs. The overall implication is that false memory fits with activated schemas; thus, making it hard when trying to differentiate it from true memory.

In trying to understand the false memory phenomena, research shows that several mechanisms help in the formation of false memories. These include suggestibility, incorporation of misinformation, and source misattribution. Each mechanism creates a situation where one’s memory experiences a lapse that resulting in a false memory. In a 1974 study by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer, it was noted that language has a key part in the development of false memory where words used when phrasing a question disrupts one's memory (Otgaar, Howe, & Muris, 2017). The findings from this study point to the occurrence of suggestibility as a factor leading to false memory, which results in a situation where it becomes hard for individuals to recall specific aspects about some of the events that they experience. In such cases, what is most notable is the fact that one’s false memory is determined by how they perceive the event that they intend to recall.

The way false memories occur can be attributed to a vast array in which one’s memory may be distorted. False memories may contribute to a wide array of issues such as unconscious plagiarism, as well as, the suggestion effects in eyewitness memory or, in some severe cases, erroneous accounts of abuse for both children and adults (Bookbinder & Brainerd, 2016). In such cases, individuals are much more likely to believe in the false memories that they create within their brains, which they would consider as a true representation of their memories. An example can be seen when a person can create an elaborate description of an event that may not have occurred from repeated questioning about the fictitious event. The probability of false memories increases significantly when individuals encounter traumatic events that they would want to forget. While trying to forget, the brain creates a sequence that describes a fictitious event that the individual may consider as being accurate.

False Memory and the Brain 

Technological advancements have played a key role in allowing researchers to examine how the brain functions to determine key parts responsible for specific actions. The parts of the brain that have been associated with memory are the amygdala, the cerebellum, the hippocampus, and the prefrontal cortex (shown in figure 1 below). Researchers have been involved in examining different behaviors and behavioral patterns linked with the activation of each part responsible for memory. In one study, Zaragoza, Hyman and Chrobak (2019) examine unique brain activation patterns attributed to true memories, which are then compared to patterns associated with false memories to help determine their similarities or differences. The findings take note of the fact that patterns associated with false memory are much more intense when compared to those associated with true memory, as the brain experiences an increase in blood flow and activity of neurons.

Figure 1: Parts of the Brain Involved in Memory 

In examining the impacts of true and false words on the hippocampus proper, Anderson (2015) notes that they produce almost identical fMRI responses, which are significantly stronger when compared to the responses associated with new words. The fact that fMRI responses are somewhat similar results in a situation where it becomes much harder or challenging to differentiate between false and true memories. The challenge is that one’s perception of an event, whether true or false, often defines how the brain responds when dealing with different memories. Patihis and Loftus (2016) note that false memories, about childhood events, in adults are often associated with the need for the brain to cover up the upsetting event; thus, meaning that one’s perception of such events will be shaped by the false memory created. When recalling such events, the fMRI responses occurring in the brain may be similar to when the same individual is recalling a true event.

Research has also noted that false memories can be implanted by scientists during research and law enforcement depending on what is expected when evaluating such memories. Zhu et al. (2019) indicate that, in most cases, the brain can call up false memories without being induced towards such memories, which is often the case when dealing with memories of past unrelated events. The idea is that the brain uses false recollection as a hypothesis that allows for the formation of false memory; thus, impacting how one behaves. Okado and Stark (2005) note that continued exposure to false memory encoding brings out “similar but not identical meanings are represented by like patterns of activity in the brain, and such overlapping activity leads to false memories” (p.8). In such cases, what is most notable is the fact that neural activity changes slightly with a shift in how the brain perceives an event, which determines whether the memory can be perceived as true or false.

Theories of False Memories 

Presuppositions 

The first significant theory that is used to describe the theory of false memories is presuppositions. A presupposition refers to an implication that is obtained through a chosen language. The use of presuppositions helps in creating two separate effects that are defined using the language used in a statement. The effects created from a presupposition include the true and the false effects. The language used a statement helps in defining the nature of the effect obtained. In the true effect, the implication is said to be accurate considering that the language used depicts a direct translation of a statement based on facts. On the other hand, the false effect presents an implication that defines a statement to be false and inaccurate. Language is a vital aspect in defining the implications of the presuppositions of different kinds of memories. The theory of false memory helps in distinguishing between the true and the false implications of memory.

Construction Hypothesis 

The construction hypothesis is a significant theory that plays a crucial role in defining the key concepts of false memories. The theory has a significant implication that helps in creating an explanation for the malleability of memory. The concept of construction of a hypothesis is based on the ability of a respondent to recall a memory effectively without having any form of errors or uncertainties. The theory capitalizes on the ability to recall specific details, which is an aspect that helps in defining whether an individual has false memories. The concept discusses that during the construction of the hypothesis regarding details in memory, the information provided can alter the answers provided by the respondent. In that case, Brainerd and Bookbinder (2019) argue that if a true piece of information can later the response provide, with regards to a specific memory, then it means that a false memory can also alter an individual’s response thus resulting in the development of false memory.

Skeleton Theory 

The skeleton theory has a significant role in explaining how memory is recalled in an individual's life. The theory focuses on explaining two major processes that include the acquisition and the retrieval processes, which play a vital role in defining how a memory is formed and recalled. The acquisition process focuses on outlining three basic steps that result in the formation of memory. The first step includes the original encounter of a subject or an object that triggers interest and the ability to focus. During the original encounter, an individual can focus on a specific thing and obtain information regarding the point of interest. The second step in the acquisition process is visual perception, which triggers the ability to concentrate on the concepts of a specific subject. The third step in the process involves the perceptions of the external information that is necessary for reconstructing a memory. The retrieval processes capitalize on the regeneration of memory and imagery that has been observed. The retrieval process focuses on obtaining either an accurate or false memory.

Relational Processing 

Another significant concept that helps in defining false memories include the brain's relational processing. The relational processing capitalizes on two main aspects that help in defining the process of retrieving a memory. The two aspects include the verbatim and gist representations. The verbatim concept capitalizes on the matching a memory based on an individual occurrence, while the gist representations focus on matching memories to general inferences. Brainerd and Reyna (2019) maintain that gist representations are responsible for storing false memories and helps in the retrieval and recall of the memories. The retrieval of false memories in the gist representations are impacted by factors such as change of mood of an individual. In that case, it is important to note that false memories are likely to occur in a situation where an individual experienced a worse mood.

Factors Causing False Memories 

Inaccurate Perception 

The first significant factor that causes false memories is inaccurate perceptions. The development of false memory begins in the occurrence of an original event that occurs when a memory is being encoded. Dimsdale-Zucker, Flegal, Atkins, and Reuter-Lorenz (2019) maintain that if a perception of an occurrence is imprecise, it means that memory cannot be recalled effectively. Perceptions play a vital role in defining the nature of memories created. In that case, inaccurate perception contributes to the development of false memories, which are based on unclear events. Several factors may add to the development of inaccurate perceptions in a person. The key factors include stress, mood changes, and unsuitable conditions. The mentioned factors impact an individual's ability to have a clear and accurate perception to help in the development of true memories. Ultimately, the inaccurate perception results in recalling false information that is based on events that are not real.

Inferences 

The second factor that results in the development of false memory is inferences, which are made during a specific event. The inferences made during an event may be based on various factors that concern the actual event. Although the inferences may have accurate and valid information, they tend to be misleading as they are not based on facts. The key aspect that results in the development of inference involves trying to figure out what happened during an event. Additionally, trying to apply personal knowledge regarding a specific aspect helps towards the development of inferences, which impacts on the development of true and accurate memories. When focusing on the development of inferences, it is important to note that most people rely on the keywords or observations made during an event. In that case, missing important details results in the development of misconceptions that are based on inaccurate information.

Interference 

Another significant factor that causes false memory is interference during and after capturing a memory. The occurrence of similar events after memory is stored plays a role in interfering with the storage of a previous memory. The distortion and mix-up of information interfere with the process of recalling and retrieving information concerning a memory. The key factor that results in interference of memory includes the occurrence of similar events that are relatively similar. Additionally, interference is caused by factors such as memory loss due to medical conditions such as diabetes and hypertension. The interferences result in a situation where the human mind is unable to recall the actual events that occurred at a time and a specific sequence. Ultimately, this results in the development of memories that are inaccurate considering that they do not have accurate backing.

Similarity 

The similarity is a significant factor that results in the development of false memory in the process of trying to make a distinction between two aspects. Firstly, the issue of similarity occurs when a person tries to determine whether an event happened or not. To capitalize on an effective process of recognizing key aspects of an event that occurred in the past, it is necessary to engage in a recognition test, which helps in the process of deciding on a given subject and helps to determine whether an event happened or not. The recognition test helps in the identification of key aspects and events that happened through the recognition of specific objects or people. Lack of a proper ability to engage in a recognition test to determine key aspects of similar event results in the development of false memory. Most people tend to develop false memories because of the inability to distinguish between a new and an old event.

Misattributions of Familiarity 

The development of false memories is associated with misattributions of familiarity, which is a key factor that impacts on the accuracy of information provided regarding an event that occurred in the past. Misinterpretation of events plays a major role in the development of inaccurate memories that are based on the inability to make proper interpretations of past happenings and occurrences. Considering the memory formation is a process that is based on the ability to make a proper interpretation of facts and concepts regarding a specific occurrence, it is important to capitalize on engaging in proper measures to interpret information based on the actual happenings. Failing the recognition test and being unable to make proper interpretations results in the development of uncertainties in the mind of an individual, which is an aspect that contributes towards false memories. The misattributions of familiarity cause the inability to recall the true memories considering that an individual may not have the specific information of the actual thing that took place.

The False Memory Controversy in Eye Witness Reporting 

Suggestibility 

When an individual is considered as an eye witness, he or she is viewed as an important part of the prosecution of the case, especially in linking a suspect to the crime in question. However, this has become a key issue of controversy considering that many of the eye witness reports can be misled through suggestibility. Suggestibility describes the underlying effect associated with misinformation, which is often associated with external sources, leading to a situation where one creates false memories (Brainerd & Reyna, 2018). In most cases, law enforcement officers often structure their questions in a manner that is likely to lead an eye witness towards creating a false memory. The impact that this has had is that it has created a situation it becomes much harder in trying to determine the credibility of eye witness reports with the view being that such reports may have been altered to support a specific narrative.

The Misinformation Effect 

Elizabeth Loftus has undertaken extensive research on memory and cognition with the focus being on trying to determine how misinformation is likely to affect one's view of a given scenario or situation. Patihis and Loftus (2016) note that false memory often leads to the development of a misinformation effect paradigm, which suggests that one’s inability to remember specific events as they occurred may have resulted from exposure to incorrect information. Loftus notes that an eye witness’s memory of a crime or event is often perceived as being flexible attributed to the misinformation effect. For many eyewitnesses, the challenge is that it becomes hard for them to differentiate between what is perceived as false and true memory attributed to their exposure to incorrect information from the onset.

Other studies indicate that the misinformation effect is often much more severe when it occurs in social situations. When more than one person witnesses a crime, eyewitnesses tend to focus on talking to one another, which allows them to question what they have witnessed (Patihis, Frenda, & Loftus, 2018). The impact that this is likely to have is that it affects the way one or more individuals perceive what they have witnessed. The difference in perspectives often creates some form of misinformation effect; thus, distorting how different persons view the same even. When asked to state the event, the misinformation effect is evident from the fact that all the persons involved often fail to give accurate reports. Instead, they focus on the information that they received from others to determine how they present their information. Ultimately, this distorts the whole eye witness report attributed to the negative implications associated with false memory.

Repressed and Recovered Memories 

Another key aspect to note when evaluating the controversy of false memory as it relates to eye witness reports is the fact that people, especially those that have gone through traumatic events, create events that are not accurate. Otgaar, Howe and Muris (2017) note that exposure to a traumatic event results in repressed memories resulting in a situation where memories recovered are often false. Memory repression is common among adults that may have been exposed to one or more forms of traumatic events. The challenge that this creates is that it becomes much harder for these adults to come to terms with the fact that they have been exposed to such events.

It is often argued that many of those formulating false memory as a direct result of traumatic events do so with the expectation that this would help them deal with psychological distress. In cases where memories of traumatic events are recovered after long periods, it often becomes a challenge trying to disseminate between false and true memory considering that these memories are guided by what one believes or accepts as the truth (Howe, Cicchetti, Toth, & Cerrito, 2004). Therapists often make use of a vast array of therapeutic techniques have been used to recover suppressed memories. However, these techniques do not guarantee that the memories recovered will be true considering that some individuals often use false memory as a denial of the fact that they have been exposed to traumatic events.

Ethics and Public Opinion on False Memory 

The development of false information has elicited various debates and arguments concerning the ethical considerations relating to recalling false and inaccurate information. The debates based on public opinion focus on questioning the impact of false memories in an individual's life. Patihis, Frenda and Loftus (2018) maintain that a survey conducted in 2016 focusing on the public opinion and attitudes towards false memories indicated the inaccurate memories impacted on the healthy behavior of people. The majority of people undertaking the survey depicted unhealthy behaviors that are attributed to false memories. Approximately, 63% of the people mentioned that planting false memories was unethical considering that it is a factor that is based on inaccurate information. The argument based on the given opinion is based on the fact that people should focus on the implementation of accurate information that is based on actual events that occurred in the life of an individual. The accurate information may help towards the establishment of true memories.

Another key aspect of consideration entails the fact that most people undertaking the survey were more concerned with the consequences of false memories. Approximately, 45% of the people mentioned that false memories have negative impacts, which are potentially harmful as they may be manipulative thus causing trauma. In that case, the majority of people felt that encouraging false memories is unethical considering the nature of consequences. However, 14 % of the people engaging in the survey mentioned that the false memories did not have any form of an impact considering that they are based on free will. In their opinion, the given population argued that it is impossible to define the nature of memories that an individual may recall considering that it is an aspect that is defined in the mind. The argument, in this case, was based on the ideology that memory formation is a process that cannot be defined by an individual as it is affected by external forces.

Summary 

The information gathered notes that false memory occurs as a mental experience resulting from a situation where one fails to recall an event accurately or provides distorted information that may not have occurred. The evaluation of false memory and how it affects behaviors and behavioral patterns in the brain shows that the patterns associated with true and false memory are somewhat similar. The fMRI responses to true and false memory cannot be distinguished considering that individuals often perceive false memory in a manner suggesting that it is a true memory. Multiple research studies have taken note of the fact that the differentiation of true and false memories cannot be achieved through the evaluation of brain functionality. An evaluation of the theories of false memories indicates that several key theories can be applied in explaining formation of false memories. These include relational processing, construction hypothesis, presuppositions, and skeleton theory. Each theory gives a distinct view of what is expected when evaluating how false memory affects one’s recollection of events.

On the other hand, it was equally important to engage in a discussion focused on identifying some of the factors causing false memories. The factors identified are inaccurate perception, interference, inferences, similarity, and familiarity misattributions. The factors represent an overall change in the way people consider their understanding of the memories that they create, which may differ from the accuracy of the events. The main concern to note when evaluating the factors is that they highlight a clear shift in the way individuals perceive their memories. From the factors, it can be noted that individuals are much more susceptible to false memory based on exposure to incorrect information from others. The implication that false memory has had can be seen from the fact that it becomes challenging to create accurate eye witness testimonies taking into account the variation reports presented.

The controversy associated with false testimony in eye witness reporting can be viewed from the perspective of suggestibility. Suggestibility occurs when an individual’s memory is distorted by an external source; thus, paving the way for false memory. For example, the way law enforcement officers structure questions determine how one is likely to answer. In such cases, it becomes much easier for individuals to experience a distortion in their information. On the other hand, eye witness testimony is often shaped by the misinformation effect. The misinformation effect occurs when one’s ability to recall a given event changes when he/she is exposed to incorrect information. The impact that this is likely to have is that it creates a change in the way one responds to a specific memory. Eye witness testimony can also be impacted by repressed and recovered memory considering that people often repress and replace those memories that they want to forget.

Conclusion 

The brain plays a key role in the store of information and recalls it later, which is a process that occurs in memory. Memory takes place in three stages, which include encoding, storage, and retrieval. False memory refers to a scenario where one's ability to recall an event does not represent the true occurrence of the event. In most cases, false memory occurs as a mental experience, which becomes hard for an individual to distinguish between true and false memories. The central parts of the brain responses for memory are the hippocampus, the amygdala, the prefrontal cortex and the cerebellum. An evaluation of the activities occurring in these parts of the brain when one is describing a false memory indicates that activities are similar when compared to those involved in true memory. Some of the key factors contributing to false memories include inferences, inaccurate perception, interference, similarity, and familiarity misattributions.

References 

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