Applied behavioral analysis (ABA) is an approach used in understanding behavior related to social interests. It is considered an evidence-based intervention program that focuses on the improvement of specific behaviors such as communication and social and fine motor skills. Notably, ABA is used as an intervention program among learners with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The program is considered quite an effective way of assisting ASD learners because of its flexibility. The intervention program can be utilized in setting, such as home, school, and even clinics. The program has grown significantly in the past ten years; however, it has been used from the 1960s to help children with developmental challenges ( Axelrod et al., 2012). The program helps increase language and communication skills, decrease behavioral problems, and improve attention and focus among autistic children. ABA has been applied in the prevention of challenges caused by autism among children below 9 years from the 20th century ( Axelrod et al., 2012). The most effective ABA program, which is currently utilized worldwide due to its effectiveness, is Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention (EIBI). The theoretical foundation of ABA is attributed to early behaviorists such as Watson, Pavlov, and Skinner. The scholar mentioned above views that behavior is developed by exposing an individual to external stimuli. ABA plays a vital role in helping learners be affected by mental disorders such as autism to acquire positive behaviors that can enhance their daily lives. Subjecting students to ABA procedures such as discrete trial and incidental teaching has facilitated the realization of desired behavior that can help autistic students to join integrated classrooms. The paper will focus on ABA's literature review by discussing age addressed and description of ABA prevention program, application of ABA on learners with autism, ABA procedures, Theoretical foundation of ABA, Research-based evidence of ABA effectiveness and its overall impression.
Literature Review
Ages Addressed and Description of Prevention Program
Applied Behavior Analysis works towards advancing socially critical changes that can help learners experiencing autistic conditions below nine years. According to Axelrod et al. (2012), the utilization of ABA has helped physicians, teachers, and analysis in the treatment and teaching of individuals affected by psychological maladjustment according to principles explicated by behavioral theorists. The research in the ABA field has led to diagnostic criteria that can be used to identify learners with autism. Axelrod et al. (2012) argue that the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV-CT was developed as a result of extensive research in ABA. Children with autism have been subjected to intensive training that allows them to learn how to behave appropriately after some years of intensive therapy. The utilization of ABA as a behavior modification method is intended to teach the learner about desired skills and behavior while helping them reduce the outbursts. For example, through ABA, the child with autism can use words in making requests.
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In the past, autism disorder was associated with poor prognosis, and due to such ASD prevalence was quite high at 1:91 ( Leaf et al., 2017) . However, the development of ABA behavioral interventions such as intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) has led to the elimination of life-threatening behaviors, improvement in the quality of life, and productivity. The program was developed in 1987 by Ivar Lovaas. Lovaas highlighted that early EIBI of 40h/ weekly was quite effective ( Axelrod et al., 2012). The ABA intervention program utilizes a curriculum that emphasizes language skills, and intensively applies behavioral procedures. The behavioral mechanism helped in increasing autistic individual IQ by more than 100 ( Leaf et al., 2017 ). Lovaas intervention was viewed as monumental, and thus, the learners who were subjected to the educational program and maintained follow up showed improvement in adaptive and intellectual functioning. The core elements of the program involve teaching of specific procedures called discrete trial training. The ABA program addresses the core deficiency experienced by ASD learners by developing individualized programs according to prevailing behavioral repertoires such as communication or social skills. The function-based approach is used in decreasing challenging behaviors that might interfere with teaching or learning and replacing with more appropriate ones.
Application of ABA on Autism learners
The prevention program is used in addressing autism mental health disorders among children below nine years. As outlined by Guercio (2018), children between 2 and 9 years old are estimated at 67% of the total population with autism. Children diagnosis at the age of 2 to 5 is associated with a stable form of autism compared to learners between the ages of 7 and 9 ( Lerman et al., 2015) . As such, it is essential to develop an early intervention mechanism to help learners develop suitable behavior within the early stages of cognitive and motor development. Addressing the mental health issues using ABA early intervention methods also helps in accelerating their learning process.
ABA Procedures
There are various procedures used in teaching learners with autism disorder. One of the common approaches used in teaching learners with mental disorders is a discrete trial. A method is a systematic approach used in teaching various types of skills. The discrete trial is composed of a discriminative stimulus, such as instruction from behavior interventionists ( Lerman et al., 2015) . The procedure also entails the utilization of responses from the learners and consequence resulting from the observable behavior like punishment or reinforcement provided by the interventionist. The instructions can also involve prompting before learners' responses, a method that will likely increase the likelihood of learners responding to questions asked correctly. The teachers can also use expressive and receptive teaching, play, and conversation methods. Those mentioned above effectively teach children between 6 and 9 years affected by autism ( Axelrod et al., 2012). The approaches are used in labeling the emotions of others, especially among autistic learners in general schools.
Instructors utilize five steps in teaching a discrete trail: discriminative stimulus, the prompt, child response, consequences, and inter-trial interval. The discriminative stimulus is used to alert the student regarding the task at hand and help the autism student connect between appropriate response and specific direction. For instance, the teacher can alert the student by asking questions such as, what is this? Before asking the learner to identify the object asked. The prompt involves an instructor’s initiative of showing the learner the correct response. It helps in guiding the learners’ behavior. Child response entails the behavior the learner exhibits when presented with the discriminative stimulus ( Leaf et al., 2017) . It is either a correct or incorrect answer. In such a case, the target response is always defined before the instructor engages the learner. Consequences depend on the correctness of the responses offered by the learner. A correct response is reinforced immediately with a positive reward. The rewards are normally identified before each trial. The learners are corrected in case of a wrong response in using a discrete trail. In such a case, the trainer remains neutral as much as possible, and therefore, the cases of punishments and reinforcement are not experienced ( Leaf et al., 2017) . Lastly, the inter-trial interval discrete step involves indicating the end of the time of a particular trial as well as the impending one. The interval between the two should not be more than five minutes to enhance continuity in the learning process.
Secondly, the teacher can also use incidental teaching procedures. The method is used in expanding the language ability of an autistic student, and one has to utilize the principle of behavior analysis. The method is used in teaching autistic students about play and social skills, complex language, and early reading methods. The incidental teaching procedure was developed in 1968 by Hart and Risley while working with children from low-income families. The teaching procedure is unstructured and geared towards helping the leaner in practicing particular skills. Axelrod et al. (2012) argue that the incidental teaching procedure expands learners' verbal communication regardless of the instructional setting. The teaching procedure is composed of environmental teaching, reinforcement, child initiation, and elaboration. The teaching procedure should take place in a natural environment. However, it has to be arranged to allow the learner to initiate and request desired activities, items, or materials ( Guercio, 2018) . The method is centered on learner interests, and it focuses on what he or she initiates. Once the environment arrangement has been achieved done, the trainer waits for the learner to initiate the educational process. The initiation of instruction can be done using a manual sign, a one-word request, gesture, or a full-sentence—the interventional response in the form of a question or vocal model. The procedure should be individualized for all learners. The goal of the method is to help the learner to imitate the expanded models prompted by the interventionist.
Theoretical Foundation
The history of applied behavior analysis is attributed to various scholars from the 20 th century. Notably, John B. Watson is seen by various behaviorists as the founder of applied behaviorism based on his book “psychology as a behaviorists Views It” ( Lerman et al., 2015) . His work, which dates between 1878 and 1958, was based on the view that eradication of references of conclusions can be achieved through the formulation of better psychological processes in general, the behavior will be achieved. Watson's thinking was influenced by the classical conditioning of Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov. His view was mainly concerned with the observable psychological interpretation of individual behavior. Through his famous and controversial experiment Little Alberty , behaviorist views that exposure to stimuli was vital in realizing a behavior ( Leaf et al., 2017) . Further, B. F Skinner researched that behavior operates in a particular environment advantageous to human beings. Nonetheless, ABA developed as a result of further research of Watson's work by B. F Skinner. The behaviorist published in the first book called Behaviorism in 1974 highlighted that the best way of understanding behavior is through observable causes and consequences ( Axelrod et al., 2012). Through his experiment on operant conditioning, B. F Skinner argues that behavior can only be developed through a series of reinforcement. The behaviorist highlights that; behavior can either be developed through either positive, negative, or punishment reinforcement methods. Based on positive reinforcement, B. F. Skinner believes that rewarding learners can strengthen behavior with their behavioral consequences. For instance, in teaching a learner with the autistic condition, the teachers recommend using chewing gum. It helps in shaping verbal behavior in such a way that the learner can request additional chewing gum. Thus, leading to better outcomes of behavior required.
The development of applied behaviorism is also attributed to natural sciences influencers such as Ivan Pavlov, Ivan Sechenov, and Vladimir Bechterev. The three scholars were concerned with training in physiology and the prediction of scientific experiments analysis. Such led to objective formulation in their applications and findings in learning human psychology. Through their physiology work, the three Russians postulated that the initial causes of a particular action by a man are caused by eternal stimuli ( Axelrod et al., 2012), thus reflecting that complex behavior of humans can only be acquired through learning. In Pavlov's perspective specifically, animals are salivated in the presence of food as well as in case they see the person who normally feeds them, thus proving that external causatives are the main causes of change in one's behavior.
Regardless of the ABA field development in the 20 th century, Guercio (2018) views that it has grown significantly in the past ten years. Based on a recent report by Lerman et al. (2015), it has been established that, by 2011, there were relatively 7, 419 new students in the field of ABA. The number led to an increase in the number of certified behavioral analysts to over 14, 000. The drastic growth has led to the creation of a board mandated to certify behavioral analysts and course sequences that provide requisite training for ABA professionals. Currently, there are has over 200 colleges and universities that are approved by the Behavioral Analyst Certification Board (BACB) ( Lerman et al., 2015) . The board's development aimed to enhance quality control and rigor in the presentation of materials related to the science of behavior. The current endorsed programs are based on the accreditation of the Association for Behavioral Analysis International (ABAI), which has been in place since 1974. The programs are grounded according to curriculum related to aspects of science and philosophy of human behavior envisioned by Skinner ( Leaf et al., 2017 ). Regardless of strides made in applied behavioral analysis, the present specialization in a market-driven curriculum on ASD is dangerous. The curriculum required to achieve the desired behavior outcomes should be based on the philosophy of science of behavior and readings that cover behavior analysis.
Research-Based Evidence of Program Effectiveness
Applied behavioral analysis has been recognized as a safe and effective way of teaching learners with autism. The teaching method has been endorsed by various surgeons and state departments in the USA ( Axelrod et al., 2012). In the 60 years, the EIBI program has been used extensively to teach people with autism purposely to help them live productive and enjoyable lives ( Lerman et al., 2015 ). In particular, the teaching technique helps instill necessary skills such as listening, looking, and imitating. Besides, it also helps an individual develop complex skills such as conversing, reading, and understanding other perspectives required for a normal life. Nonetheless, scholars such as ( Guercio 2018 ) argue that the program is quite effective among the children between the ages of 2 to 3 years. Normand & Kohn (2013) reiterate that children exposed to EIBI between 24 th and 36 th month demonstrated 70% significant gains compared to those who started the program above three years. The program is quite effective among boys as compared to girls. The condition is more prevalent to boys and girls since every 5 children with autistic disorder, 4 are boys. The prevalence of the condition is found across ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic groups; however, the children from intervention programs are more effective among Whites and children from economically stable families.
The program has various shortcomings. Notably, the procedures and policies in place in general education do not help learners who require differential programs. For the past decade, ABA scholars have demonstrated that the curricula in place help address issues that affect autistic issues in all learning institutions; the same scholars have failed to account on issues affecting autism students in the general education system ( Axelrod et al., 2012). The research on the effectiveness of ABA is conducted only on the employment opportunities in ABA and developmental disabilities. Such has led to the yielding of perception from the general public that the program does not consider general education or other issues facing society. Besides, the program is characterized by the learner's inability to generalize skills they have learned ( Leaf et al., 2017 ). Autistic kids who have been undergone the learning process can only do exactly what they have been taught. Nonetheless, the program's success is also associated with external stimuli ( Normand & Kohn, 2013). T he various skills that autistic learners obtain depend on the interactions with their instructors.
Overall Impression of The Program
The program is useful, especially if the intervention is started before the child is 3 years. Lerman et al. (2015) posit that children with developmental needs who start the program early can achieve intellectual and normal educational functional by the time they are 7 years old. Such children will be able to mainstream to the regular classroom, and also, they can exhibit an increase in intellectual functioning. However, to increase its effectiveness, incorporating Skinner's analysis in teaching verbal behavior among children experiencing verbal impairment, which is the main challenge affected by autism should be considered ( Guercio, 2018 ). The teaching methodology is characterized by refinement in teaching and technological procedures such as Picture Exchange Communication System ( Axelrod et al., 2012), which can contribute immensely to educating children with autism. The incorporation will reduce challenges resulting from the discrimination challenge that most autism students experience. Lovaas’s teaching technique has helped many learners with autism exhibit better behaviors to reduce the symptoms of autism. In a nutshell, one view that ABA instructional methods are a gratifying method can help people with autism live fulfilling lives.
Conclusion
Applied behavioral analysis has played a crucial role in the education of children with developmental disabilities. Early behaviorists such as B. F. Skinner, Looves, and Pavlov contributed immensely to the understanding of behaviorism. Remarkably, the scholars view that for a behavior to be realized, an external stimulus is required. ABA has helped in the development of interventions that can help in addressing autism issues. Autism is a problem affecting 1% of the world population, and a large number affected is children. Thus, it requires evidence-based intervention methods to help learners develop positive behaviors, such as improved communication skills. Mental health disorder is associated with challenges related to speaking, reading, and motor skills. Application of evidence-based methods such as EIBI has proven to help learners in living better lives. The teaching method involves subjecting the students to a teaching program between 25 to 40 hours weekly. The effectiveness of the program is effective if it is started earlier. Notably, it has been established that learners who begin the program at the age of 2 and 3 were able to effectively develop the desired behavior compared to those who started the program after 5 years. The teaching prevention program involves the utilization of teaching procedures, such as discrete trial and incidental teaching. The effectiveness of EIBI in children can be achieved by subjecting them to at least 25 to 40 hours of prevention program weekly. Nonetheless, the learners must utilize the follow-up programs for at least 2 to 3 years to reinforce the acquired behavior.
References
Axelrod, S., McElrath, K. K., & Wine, B. (2012). Applied behavior analysis: Autism and beyond. Behavioral Interventions , 27 (1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1335
Guercio, J. M. (2018). The importance of a deeper knowledge of the history and theoretical foundations of behavior analysis: 1863–1960. Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice, 18 (1), 4–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bar0000123
Leaf, J. B., Cihon, J. H., Ferguson, J. L., & Weinkauf, S. M. (2017). An introduction to applied behavior analysis. Handbook of Childhood Psychopathology and Developmental Disabilities Treatment , 25-42. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71210-9_3
Lerman, D. C., Hawkins, L., Hillman, C., Shireman, M., & Nissen, M. A. (2015). Adults with autism spectrum disorder as behavior technicians for young children with autism: Outcomes of a behavioral skills training program. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 48 (2), 233-256. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.196
Normand, M. P., & Kohn, C. S. (2013). Don’t wag the dog: Extending the reach of applied behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst , 36 (1), 109-122. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03392294
