Among the most complicated organs in the animal kingdom is the human brain while arguably the most complicated process is the human psychological development. The complication and complexity are augmented when a problem arises within the said organ or system. It is perhaps for this reason that problems that arise during the process of human development are difficult to define or manage. ADHD is an example of such a development as has been defined as a neurodevelopmental condition that manifests in childhood between the ages of 6 and 12. The instant research paper reports in the outcome of a careful perusal and analysis of available research on the subject. Based on the said studies, there is very little consensus on what amounts to ADHD. Further, there are several diagnostic approaches that do not conform to each other. Finally, several treatment regimens exist, some based on pharmacological intervention and others on behavioral therapy. The only notable consensus in many of the perused articles is that pharmacological interventions are effective. Further and more substantive research is thus necessary to better understand ADHD.
Introduction
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) can be defined as a neurodevelopmental condition that manifests in childhood and can remain persistent until adulthood. Among the common symptoms of ADHD include difficulty in paying attention for a duration of time or at all and hyperactivity (Friedman & Rapoport, 2015). Patients may also exhibit behavior that is not consistent with the age of the child and also that does not seem to consider adverse consequences. Although the primary focus on ADHD is in children, the condition has been known to subsist in adulthood too. However, most adult patients will develop coping mechanisms and be able to leave a relatively normal and productive life but not always. ADHD is also an extremely controversial subject. For a start, there have been arguments that it is not a real psychological condition. However, most mainstream scholars believe in its existence but dispute its prevalence and diagnosis. ADHD is treatable through both pharmacological intervention and behavioral therapy (Yasumura et al. 2019). ADHD is a major psychological issue affecting children and whose impact can adversely affect their futures yet despite its having been known to exist for decades, very limited substantive knowledge has been developed about it.
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Diagnostic criteria from the DSM
In the USA, diagnosis of ADHD is based on American Psychology association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) (de Zeeuw et al., 2015). The diagnosis is based on a set of six to twelve symptoms which must manifest between the ages of 6 and 12. The symptoms must manifest in more than one definitive environment. The process will involve observational instruments filled by two adult observers from each of the two environments such as home and school respectively. ADHD is controversial and other more definitive diagnostic tools are being developed.
Prevalence and Incidence
Due to the controversial nature of ADHD, its prevalence has been a matter of controversy. According to Lauth, Heubeck, & Mackowiak, (2006) ADHD prevalence seems to be relatively congruent around the world by the numbers will vary depending on the evaluation method. For example, evaluation based on teachers and parents respectively places prevalence at about 20%. On the other hand, prevalence made using the APA’s DSM has a prevalence around 11% according to Lauth, Heubeck, & Mackowiak, (2006). International diagnostic tools will, however, place prevalence at a much lower figure.
A Review of Theoretical Perspectives on the Causes of the Disorder
There has not been any definitive confirmation for the causation of ADHD. However, theoretical perspectives on its causes can be developed based on its prerequisites. Most available research shows ADHD as a developmental disorder hence its causation must be a combination of nature and nurture. Conversely, according to Yasumura et al. (2019), ADHD does show physiological attributes such as decreased activation of the center and right prefrontal cortex (PFC). Conversely, ADHD can be controlled through behavioral therapy or even a kit that uses rewards and enforcement. (Anhalt, McNeil, & Bahl, 1998). The behavioral management of ADHD can connect causation to environmental factors.
A review of Treatment Approaches
The treatment and management of ADHD are highly researched and published. Two main research regimens exist, one based in pharmacological intervention and the other on behavioral therapy (Hautmann et al. 2018). One some cases, these regimens can be used alternatively or contemporaneously. ADHD treatment has been controversial, more so the use of stimulants of children (McLennan, & Sparshu, 2018) . As is engendered in the Saint Leo core value of respect, it has been argued that pharmacological intervention on children can be a form of abuse or treating children as a means to an end by pharmaceutical companies.
A Case Example
Donny Gibbon is eleven years old and has been exhibiting extreme behavior for four years. He has also already been diagnosed with ADHD using the APA’s DMS, with the diagnostics procedure having been undertaken two years ago. Unfortunately, Donny’s mother also suffers from ADHD hence his management has to be delayed as the psychiatrist treated his mother. His behavioral therapy did not work leading to its being combined with stimulants. In the last few months, however, Donny has shown a lot of improvement.
Conclusion
The primary conclusion from the sub-total of the above is that a lot of research and analysis has been undertaken regarding ADHD but there is no definitive information about it. most experts agree on its existence but not its cause, prevalence, diagnosis or management. Further, new research has starred debunking already existing research yet only recommending for further research. It is imperative that a substantive set of knowledge about ADHD be developed.
Annotated Bibliography
Anhalt, K., McNeil, C. B., & Bahl, A. B. (1998). The ADHD Classroom Kit: A whole‐classroom approach for managing disruptive behavior. Psychology in the Schools , 35 (1), 67-79.
The instant journal article reports on a case study, designed to assess the efficacy of an ADHD management regimen based on an ADHD Classroom Kit. The kit had consequences for good behavior and bad behavior respectively and also the third component of peer intervention involving the whole classroom. Based on the results of the case study, disruptive behavior when the kit was used was exponentially lower than when the kit was not used. The researchers recommended further studies on simple and innovative methods of managing ADHD in children. Whereas the journal article is peer-reviewed, its finding must be evaluated on an understanding that it is based in a case study, not an actual scientific primary research. The study, however, presents valuable information about simple ADHD management regimens.
Courtabessis, E., Pupier, F., Surig, L., Picot, M. C., Nogué, E., Macioce, V., ... & Purper-Ouakil, D. (2018). Clinical factors associated with decision to recommend methylphenidate treatment for children with ADHD in France. European child & adolescent psychiatry , 27 (3), 367-376.
The instant study reports on a primary research undertaken to evaluate if French practitioners were adhering to European guidelines when they prescribed methylphenidate to treat children with ADHD. The assessment was geared towards establishing if methylphenidate was being prescribed upon children who may not really need it. Based on the assessment, the symptoms of the children who had been prescribed methylphenidate were extreme enough to be consistent with European guidelines over the same. The research article is peer-reviewed and based on primary research hence credible and reliable. Its contribution to the overall knowledge about ADHD relates to pharmacological treatment guidelines, especially in Europe.
de Zeeuw, E. L., van Beijsterveldt, C. E., Lubke, G. H., Glasner, T. J., & Boomsma, D. I. (2015). Childhood ODD and ADHD behavior: The effect of classroom sharing, gender, teacher gender and their interactions. Behavior Genetics , 45 (4), 394-408.
The instant journal article reports on a research study undertaken to evaluate the credibility and reliability of Teacher Rating Scales-Revised (CTRS-R), an important tool for ADHD diagnosis. The evaluation is based on the fact that under DSM-IV, symptom manifestation in more than one place is necessary hence normally a parent and a teacher will be involved. However, careful evaluation of CTRS-R revealed inconsistencies based on environmental factors such as the child’s peers, whether twin is in the same or different class and the gender of the teacher. The study recommends the review of CTRS-R. This study contributes to the understanding of ADHD diagnosis and controversies relating to the same.
Friedman, L. A., & Rapoport, J. L. (2015). Brain development in ADHD. Current opinion in neurobiology , 30 , 106-111.
The instant journal article is an analytical paper that elucidates on the subject of ADHD from a general perspective. The authors present a generalized overview of the available information on ADHD, based on a collection of 53 selected publications. Their analysis includes what amount of ADHD, its causes and its management. Of specific focus in the article is the effectiveness of psychostimulants in the management of ADHD. As the article is peer-reviewed, it can be adjudged as credible and reliable but with a caveat as it is not based on any primary studies. It contributes to the overall study by providing a background of ADHD from a general perspective.
Hautmann, C., Döpfner, M., Katzmann, J., Schürmann, S., Metternich-Kaizman, T. W., Jaite, C., ... & Hennighausen, K. (2018). Sequential treatment of ADHD in mother and child (AIMAC study): importance of the treatment phases for intervention success in a randomized trial. BMC Psychiatry , 18 (1), 388.
The instant journal article reports on primary research relating to the management of ADHD on children whose mothers also have ADHD. The aim of the research study was to evaluate if treating the mother aggressively first was necessary before commencing management of the child’s issue. The primary study was a randomized multicenter parallel-group trial involving 144 sets of mothers and children both with ADHD. In one group the mothers underwent aggressive ADHD management regimen. Both groups then underwent ordinary child ADHD management. The results revealed negligible differences between the two groups. The researchers concluded that proceeding directly with child management is the best approach. The research is peer-reviewed and based on a sound trial-process hence reliable and credible and reliable. It contributes to knowledge on ADHD management.
Irwin, L. N., Kofler, M. J., Soto, E. F., & Groves, N. B. (2019). Do children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have set shifting deficits?. Neuropsychology .
The instant article reports on a relatively complex primary research designed specifically to debunk a prevalent conclusion the effect of ADHD on children. The conclusion is that ADHD causes medium magnitude shifting impairments. The primary study conducted included 43 children with ADHD and 34 children without ADHD. The children were then tested using global-local versus both nonshift control tasks. The results reflected that the children with ADHD performed at par with ordinary children in global-local but struggled with nonshift control tasks. This led to the conclusion that ADHD does not cause medium magnitude shifting impairments, but only inability to accept instructions in some tasks. This peer-reviewed article can be considered reliable but with a caveat as its monumental conclusions are based in a relatively smaller sample test. It contributes to knowledge about the impact of ADHD on children.
Lauth, G. W., Heubeck, B. G., & Mackowiak, K. (2006). Observation of children with attention‐deficit hyperactivity (ADHD) problems in three natural classroom contexts. British Journal of Educational Psychology , 76 (2), 385-404.
The instant article reports on a primary observational study undertaken to establish the veracity of teacher observations for the conduct of students in class form the perspective of ADHD diagnosis. The basis of the test was to evaluate the roles played by teachers in the process of ADHD diagnosis. The researchers carefully observed a group of 55 students with ADHD and 55 students control students. Based on the results and analysis the teachers were able to accurately code student behavior, both for the test group and control group. The peer-reviewed article can be considered as accurate and reliable but with a caveat due to the smaller sample of teachers used. It does, however, present valuable knowledge on the ADHD diagnosis process.
McLennan, J. D., & Sparshu, S. (2018). Returning to stimulants in children with treatment resistant ADHD: A case series. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 27 (1), 62.
The instant journal article reports on results of a study that reviewed results of children who have been treated with different stimulants, discontinued then retreated with similar stimulants a second time. The aim of the study was to establish strategies for treating treatment-resistant ADHD. Based on the research and analysis, children whose stimulant treatment was discontinued for a variety of reasons got better results when the same treatment was resumed at a later time. The researchers recommended further research to establish if returning to a discontinued stimulant can be a treatment of resistant ADHD. The research sample for the instant study was exponentially limited as 6 patients but it does reveal important insights on an important area of future research, which is its knowledge contribution to the topic.
Weyers, L., Zemp, M., & Alpers, G. W. (2019). Impaired Interparental Relationships in Families of Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Zeitschrift für Psychologie .
The instant peer-reviewed journal article is a meta-analysis of how parenting a child with ADHD affects the inter-parental relationship. The study is based on the concept that management of ADHD in children requires parental support but if the parents are having issues between them, then the child will not get the necessary attention. The researchers studied and analyzed available research leading to the conclusion that raising a child with ADHD increased propensity for conflict between parents. A recommendation is given for further study on the same to enable proper mitigation of the problem. Being a peer-reviewed meta-analysis of primary research articles, the instant article can be considered as credible and reliable. It contributes to the research by providing a dimension for ADHD management.
Yasumura, A., Omori, M., Fukuda, A., Takahashi, J., Yasumura, Y., Nakagawa, E., ... & Aihara, M. (2019). Age-related differences in frontal lobe function in children with ADHD. Brain and Development .
This study reports on a primary research carried out to evaluate the effects of ADHD on the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of affected children. The researchers carefully evaluated and tested 140 normally developing children and compared them with 60 children who had been diagnosed with ADHD. Based on the research results, it was evident that the right and middle PFC of children with ADHD had decreased activation as compared with the normally developing children. However, the left PFC seemed to have an increased activation level. The authors recommended further research in a bid to develop a PTC-based diagnostic procedure. The article is peer-reviewed and based on primary research. Although the research sample is relatively low it can be considered as credible and reliable. It contributes to the research by presenting evidence of the physiological manifestation of ADHD.
References
Anhalt, K., McNeil, C. B., & Bahl, A. B. (1998). The ADHD Classroom Kit: A whole‐classroom approach for managing disruptive behavior. Psychology in the Schools , 35 (1), 67-79.
Courtabessis, E., Pupier, F., Surig, L., Picot, M. C., Nogué, E., Macioce, V., ... & Purper-Ouakil, D. (2018). Clinical factors associated with decision to recommend methylphenidate treatment for children with ADHD in France. European child & adolescent psychiatry , 27 (3), 367-376.
de Zeeuw, E. L., van Beijsterveldt, C. E., Lubke, G. H., Glasner, T. J., & Boomsma, D. I. (2015). Childhood ODD and ADHD behavior: The effect of classroom sharing, gender, teacher gender and their interactions. Behavior Genetics , 45 (4), 394-408.
Friedman, L. A., & Rapoport, J. L. (2015). Brain development in ADHD. Current opinion in neurobiology , 30 , 106-111.
Hautmann, C., Döpfner, M., Katzmann, J., Schürmann, S., Metternich-Kaizman, T. W., Jaite, C., ... & Hennighausen, K. (2018). Sequential treatment of ADHD in mother and child (AIMAC study): importance of the treatment phases for intervention success in a randomized trial. BMC Psychiatry , 18 (1), 388.
Irwin, L. N., Kofler, M. J., Soto, E. F., & Groves, N. B. (2019). Do children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have set shifting deficits?. Neuropsychology .
Lauth, G. W., Heubeck, B. G., & Mackowiak, K. (2006). Observation of children with attention‐deficit hyperactivity (ADHD) problems in three natural classroom contexts. British Journal of Educational Psychology , 76 (2), 385-404.
McLennan, J. D., & Sparshu, S. (2018). Returning to stimulants in children with treatment resistant ADHD: A case series. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 27 (1), 62.
Weyers, L., Zemp, M., & Alpers, G. W. (2019). Impaired Interparental Relationships in Families of Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Zeitschrift für Psychologie .
Yasumura, A., Omori, M., Fukuda, A., Takahashi, J., Yasumura, Y., Nakagawa, E., ... & Aihara, M. (2019). Age-related differences in frontal lobe function in children with ADHD. Brain and Development .
