Globalization has enabled the world has experienced a rapid increase in the rate of migration over the past few decades. The United Nations estimates that at the beginning of the century about 175 million people lived away from their native countries and this number is only expected to increase (Matsunaga, Hecht, Elek, & Ndiaye, 2010). The United States in particular has some of the highest levels of immigration. As of 2012, 40% of the American youth was made up of ethnic minorities (Matsunaga, Hecht, Elek, & Ndiaye, 2010). Consequently, the issues of how culture and ethnicity affects child development in a country that is still dominantly white are significant as the minority population is too large to ignore. Identity formation during adolescent is a crucial step in maturation and it is complicated by cultural influences where children have to decide their ethnic identity.
The Somali are a Cushitic ethnic group that originates from the Horn of Africa. Apart from being ethnic and racial minorities, they can also be considered a religious minority as they are practice Islam (Shiil, 2014). They closely resemble Middle Eastern Arabic people and may often have the stigma associated with these groups in the U.S applied to them. In a charter school that serves this minority group, it is important to consider the environmental factors that affect the process of identity formation in Somali teens to determine how this affects their psychological, social, and intellectual development. An important factor to consider is their religion; does it further complicate their ethnic identity as they have to choose between identifying with Muslims from other areas or with the Somali tribe as Africans. Ethnic identification arising from both immigration and from the cross-cultural contact experienced by both immigrants and later generation Americans.
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Theories, Concepts, and Research Relating to Ethnic Identity Development
Developmental psychology theorists who focus on adolescent development emphasize the importance of identity formation. For instance, Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development considers the identity crisis experienced during adolescence as the core activity during this stage ( Booth et al., 2014 ). This crisis is resolved when a child is able to reconcile their need for independence and control with the identities awarded to them by their social environment. Social psychologists however emphasize the significance of identity formation in relation to one’s sense of belonging to a group. In this sense, acquisition of an identity does not follow a developmental sequence; it is based on the value that a society has placed on one’s ethnic group (French, Seidman, Allen, & Aber, 2006). For instance, if you consider Somalis, they are identified as Africans and Muslims. In the United States, Africans have a low status due to their relation with African Americans whose descendants were once enslaved by the white population. Muslims are regarded with suspicion due to the connection between the religion and Jihad terrorism. These values that have been attached to these groups are bound to affect how a Somali adolescent views themselves in the broader context of society.
Individuals whose social groups are highly values do not feel the need to modify their social identity. Such individuals usually take the concept of an ethnic identity for granted as they often the ethnic majority and they have no need to set themselves apart from other groups (Rivas-Drake et al., 2014). In the U.S, white adolescents are often not faced with the crisis of identity formation. This may however not always be the case due to the rapid immigration which will see minority groups collectively make up more of the population in the coming decades. According to French, Seidman, Allen, & Aber (2006), when one is a member of a devalued group, they will feel the need to consider the meaning of their social identity using either of these strategies: Individual mobility is where one person physically or psychologically (when the group cannot be modified) leaves the group. Social creativity is when the entire group redefines itself by either making themselves superior in comparison to another group or changing the values that others have assigned to their group. Social competition is when the group actively changes the social system to achieve a change in the hierarchy of groups in a society.
A group-esteem refers to feeling good about belonging to a certain group and is similar to individual self-esteem. Group esteem is significant to the formation of social identity because research shows that people with a high collective esteem are more likely to use social creativity or social competition to restore their devalued identity (French, Seidman, Allen, & Aber, 2006) . Using individual identity to restore an identity crisis can be detrimental to the process as identity formation because in essence it requires one to deny who they are. There are things that make one part of a group that they cannot change such as race and geographical origin. Unfortunately, ethnic minorities tend to internalize negative values that are associated to their groups so they may feel like leaving the group may be easier than restoring their devalued identity.
There are several theories of Ethnic Identity Development (EID) which emphasize the significance of the ethnic identity to a person’s overall identity. Jean Phinney used the concepts presented by fellow psychologists Erik Erikson and James Marcia to create a theory of EID that progresses through three stages (French, Seidman, Allen, & Aber, 2006). The first stage is the unexamined ethnic identity where children have no concrete beliefs regarding their ethnicity and their ethnic identity is derived from others. The second is ethnic identity search which occurs with the onset of adolescence is where the child actively explores their ethnicity and its values. The third stage is achieved ethnic identity where adolescents have already understood what it means to belong to their group and decided to stay in it (Matsunaga, Hecht, Elek, & Ndiaye, 2010) . Phinney however believes that reexamination of one’s ethnic identity can occur depending on their life experiences (French, Seidman, Allen, & Aber, 2006). William Cross also developed the model of Nigrescence based on Africa Americans and how they move from self-hatred to self-love through five stages; preencounter, encounter, immersion-emersion, internalization, and internalization-commitment (French, Seidman, Allen, & Aber, 2006). Although this theory presents sound arguments about how ethnic identity id formed, it will not be explored further due to its similarity to Phinney’s theory and its specific focus on the African American community. Some of its assumptions may not be generalizable to fit the Somali community.
As identified earlier, adolescents from the Somali community are immigrants or descendants of immigrants and they are therefore ethnic minorities. Due to their race as Africans and their identification with Islam, they belong to a low value ethnic community. According to the ecological systems theory by Urie Bronfenbrenner, development is affected by different cultural and environmental factors (Booth et al., 2014). The macro-system describes the society that a child belongs to and the cultural values that they should conform to. It also includes how others define his cultural group which brings attention to the concept of discrimination among adolescents and how it affects their identity formation (Umaña-Taylor & Guimond, 2010; Rivas-Drake et al., 2014) . Adolescents usually worry about how they are viewed by others and belonging to a devalued ethnic group can affect how they perceive themselves and thus delay achieved identity. For instance, if other adolescents outside the Somali group view them with suspicion and contempt due to their race or religion, this is bound to create a low group-esteem thus delaying or completely deterring their identity formation.
Possible Interventions to Enhance Adolescent Ethnic Identity Development
Adolescents are usually in a fragile state as they try to define themselves and set themselves apart from all the identities that have been awarded to them by outsiders. The most important stakeholders in this process are parents as they are the immediate source of socialization and support for their children. According to Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems, parents and the family form the innermost domain of environmental factors that affect a child’s development; the micro-system (Booth et al., 2014; Umaña-Taylor & Guimond, 2010). In the Somali community, culture emphasizes family ties and children are close to their parents even when they are adolescents (Shiil, 2014). They are taught to respect their parents and listen to them without question. The laws of Islam also emphasize respect for elders and parents and this can be used to help adolescents in this community define their identity in a positive manner.
The behaviors of parents towards their children affect identity formation. When parents teach their children about the positive values of being part of their ethnic groups from a young age, they grow up having a positive outlook on their membership to that group (Booth et al., 2014; Umaña-Taylor & Guimond, 2010). Parents should also lead by example and show their children that they are openly proud of belonging to their ethnic group as children also learn from modeling their elders. Parent-child relationships are also important when it comes to identity formation. According to Umaña-Taylor & Guimond, (2010), when parents regard their children with warmth it sends a message of acceptance to the child, and this provides a positive environment and a sense of confidence in exploring and committing to their ethnic identity. Negative parenting practices may make an adolescent develop a negative group-concept and thus delay the exploration of the ethnic identity.
Schools can also take steps to help in the identity formation of adolescents. Most schools have more than one ethnic group either among the students or the staff. The attitude that different groups have toward each other can affect EID. Teachers in particular have a significant role to play in EID because they interact directly with the students. The attitudes they present to these children can affect how they view themselves. For instance, a teacher who regards a child’s religion or race in a negative sense will affect how the child feels about the group. The child will internalize the negative aspects presented by the teacher and may delay their exploration of the ethnic identity as a result (Booth et al., 2014). A teacher may not even have to say anything about the child’s ethnic group. How they behave is also significant since by the age of adolescence, children are perceptive of how people’s behaviors reflect their attitudes. Instead, teachers should teach adolescents to accept themselves and each other as they are so as to encourage them to explore and commit to their specific identities.
The second aspect outside the family is that of adolescent peers that interact with ethnic minority teens. Adolescents can be insensitive of other people’s emotions and needs and this can lead to negative practices such as discrimination and bullying of ethnic minorities (Umaña-Taylor & Guimond, 2010) . Adolescents fall victim to peer pressure as they want to conform to certain ideals that are accepted by their peers. Consequently, a minority teen may delay to explore their ethnicity because they have been made to believe that it is uncool to belong to their group. This may even result in individual mobility where the adolescent leaves their ethnic group. Schools should implement policies that promote cultural acceptance and interaction and discourage discrimination. If a school such as the one mentioned in this case only serves one group, it should strive to include other ethnic groups in its system to foster this interaction between adolescent peers.
Conclusion
Ethnic identity development is a significant part of identity formation in adolescents especially among minority groups as their groups are often devalued. They are also discriminated against by high value groups and this can lead to role confusion when adolescents cannot answer the question of who they are in a cultural sense. Unfortunately, the world regards people by their cultural qualities even so having an ethnic identity is a crucial adaptation for adulthood. To enhance this process and enable adolescents to form healthy commitments to their identities, parents should regulate their parenting behavior, develop positive ways to bond with their adolescent children and teach them about the positive aspects of their ethnic groups. Schools should also play their part by ensuring that they provide a culturally diverse learning environment.
References
Booth et al., M. Z., Curran, E. M., Frey, C. J., Gerard, J. M., Collet, B., & Bartimole, J. (2014). Ethnic Identity, Gender, and Adolescent Attitude toward School: Adaptive Perspectives in Diverse Settings. Midwest Educ Res (Akron), 26(2), 3-27. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4392378/
French, S. E., Seidman, E., Allen, L., & Aber, J. L. (2006). The development of ethnic identity during adolescence. Developmental Psychology , 42 (1), 1-10. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.1.1
Matsunaga, M., Hecht, M. L., Elek, E., & Ndiaye, K. (2010). Ethnic Identity Development and Acculturation: A Longitudinal Analysis of Mexican-Heritage Youth in the Southwest United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology , 41 (3), 410-427. doi:10.1177/0022022109359689
Rivas-Drake, D., Seaton, E. K., Markstrom, C., Quintana, S., Syed, M., & Lee, R. M. (2014). Ethnic and Racial Identity in Adolescence: Implications for Psychosocial, Academic, and Health Outcomes. Child Development , 85 (1), 40-57. doi:10.1111/cdev.12200
Shiil, A. (2014). Somalia: The Somali people, their history, culture and language . Retrieved from Minnesota Dept. of Health website: http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/idepc/refugee/globalbb0214.pdf
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Guimond, A. B. (2010). A longitudinal examination of parenting behaviors and perceived discrimination predicting Latino adolescents' ethnic identity. Developmental Psychology , 46 (3), 636-650. doi:10.1037/a0019376
