Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) commonly develops in individuals upon experiencing dangerous, scary, and shocking events. People who continuously experience problems and challenges have a higher likelihood of being diagnosed with PTSD. Some of the signs and symptoms associated with PTSD include having a feeling of being frightened or stressed even without being in a dangerous situation (Weston, 2014). The consideration of the prevalence indicates that most people around the world often experience mental health conditions such as depression, acute stress disorder (ASD), and PTSD after facing traumatic events. For instance, studies have been able to establish that PTSD commonly affects a considerable number of United States' veterans and service members. PTSD often presents unique experiences and challenges among functional psychiatric conditions in the sense that it has a direct relationship with causative factors that are externally identified (Vickers, 2005). An unstable individual or one who is struggling with preexisting neurotic complications could show signs and symptoms of PTSD. To that extent, there is a higher likelihood for individuals with a sound mind to show symptoms of PTSD following exposure to traumatic events such as the ones experienced by veterans and survivors of rape from the Vietnam war. Based on clinical presentation, the PTSD condition may be classified as one of the anxiety disorders that have increasingly been linked with domestic violence, natural disasters and wars happening overseas. Focus on Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder usually involves the consideration of diagnostic criteria and various etiological factors described through theoretical frameworks namely Bio-psychosocial model, Emotional processing theory, and Cognitive model among others.
Etiological factors and theoretical frameworks
Trauma usually exposes people to threatened or actual injury or death. This exposure is usually followed by the unfolding of three different dimensions of PTSD. One of these dimensions involves re-experiencing the traumatic event through distressing flashbacks, physical distress, dreams and recollections (Ophuis, Polinder & Haagsma, 2018). The second dimension entails the involvement of persistent stimuli avoidance with the likelihood of inviting experiences or memories associated with the trauma. The third dimension represents an increase in arousal where traumatic events are considered as being sufficient in leading to PTSD. Regarding the criteria for diagnostic, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder requires exposure to a stressful or traumatic event (Gale, Abbey & Thomas, 2013). Criterion A of the diagnostic criteria for PSTD considers exposure to threatened or actual death, sexual violence or severe injury in different ways. Such ways include having a direct experience of traumatic events, witnessing the occurrence of a traumatic event in others, learning of the presence of traumatic events involving a close friend or a family member, and exposure to extreme or repeated cases of aversive information regarding the traumatic event. Diagnostic criterion B for PSTD consists of the consideration of a situation involving re-experiencing of repeated traumatic events in several ways (Ehlers & Clark, 2015). Such ways include intrusive, involuntary and recurrent memories of that particular event, recurrent dreams with a distressing tendency, dissociative reactions like flashbacks, and prolonged or intense psychological distress upon exposure to external or internal cues resembling or symbolizing an aspect of a traumatic event. Criterion D involves cognitive alterations and mods linked to trauma in certain ways.
Delegate your assignment to our experts and they will do the rest.
These ways include difficulty in remembering critical aspects that characterize a traumatic event, and exaggerated and persistent expectations or beliefs about individuals or their surroundings. Others include distorted or persistent cognitions regarding the consequences or cause of a traumatic experience that result in the tendency of blaming others, a persistent state of negative emotion, and diminished participation or interest concerning significant activities in the life of an individual (Stein, Koenen & McLaughlin, 2015). Criterion D could also be considered through an examination of estrangement or detachment feelings from others, and persistent difficulty in having positive emotions. According to criterion E of the diagnostic criteria for PSTD, altered reactivity and arousal linked to traumatic events as well as the commencement of traumatic events may follow several ways (Vickers, 2005). These ways include outbursts of anger or irritable behavior accompanied by a certain level of provocation and destructive or reckless behavior. Other ways include exaggerated responses, hyper-vigilance, sleep disturbance, and difficulties in concentration. Criterion F considers the symptoms identified and described in other criteria mentioned above. Criterion G focuses on the consideration of clinically significant impairment or distress in occupational, social or other functioning areas. Criterion H considers disturbance that has no relationship with other illness, substance use or medication.
It is noteworthy that several neurobiological and psychological theoretical frameworks have been brought forward with the intention of describing and explaining characteristics, signs, and symptoms of PTSD. The consideration of theoretical frameworks demonstrates the existence of various etiological factors that are associated with PTSD (Rauch & Foa, 2006). One of these frameworks is the biopsychosocial model which indicates that social, psychological, and biological factors are interconnected with a significance concerning the promotion of a positive status of health. In this regard, this particular theoretical framework enhances the convenience for clinicians in describing and explaining phenomena like PTSD through the examination of all the relevant social, psychological, and biological considerations. Weston (2014) observes that PTSD may largely be responsible for increasing the vulnerability of an individual to the development of a wide range of physical conditions. Besides, studies have been able to demonstrate that genes can initiate and affect the transfer of depression across different generations. Psychological factors linked to PTSD may include tendencies such as problems in making sound judgments, inadequacies in coping skills, negative thinking patterns, and challenges in emotional intelligence among others (Gale, Abbey & Thomas, 2013). To a certain extent, several psychological factors may be influenced through features such as personality attributes and innate temperament. Individuals can also experience PTSD owing to social factors like lack of social support, unexpected separation, harassment or exposure to traumatic situations (Bromet, Karam & Stein, 2016). Researchers have been able to establish that most that stressful social events can act as triggers that influence genes as well as affecting the functioning of the brain.
According to Stein, Koenen, and McLaughlin (2015), once various psychological and biological vulnerabilities exist, individuals often tend to learn and understand different issues affecting social surroundings like family and friends. Therefore, the social component in this respect includes factors that are involved in strengthening, triggering, and shaping psychological and biological vulnerabilities. Ophuis, Polinder, and Haagsma (2018) argue that the biopsychosocial model and scientific understanding indicate that social, psychological, and biological factors have a higher likelihood of affecting each other owing to the existing interdependence among them. PTSD may result from different factors that are primarily dependent on one another. For instance, there are higher chances of experiencing physical reactions related in one way or another to psychological or social stressors or vice versa. Ehlers and Clark (2015) maintain that PTSD is a complex type of trauma that is responsible for triggering mental health conditions resulting from exposure to an excessive amount of stress. The social and emotional-behavioral changes may be experienced owing to the acknowledgment of PTSD as one of the most devastating outcomes linked to traumatic experiences. In that regard, studies have often focused on emphasizing some of the dramatic effects of PTSD associated with complex medical conditions reported among actively engaged duty troops (Weston, 2014). There is a considerable amount of evidence that tends to suggest that emotional regulation and executive dysfunction are responsible for causing both long-term and short-term problems. Others include a significant lowering of the ability to function independently and impairment of the ability to make sound decisions.
Emotional processing theory appears to have played a critical role in influencing the manner in which anxiety disorders like PTSD are conceptualized as well as assisting the process of developing appropriate treatments for such disorder. However, it is important to note that some researchers have indicated that the application of the emotional processing theoretical framework has often been confronted with some common difficulties including over-engagement and under-engagement. According to Gale, Abbey, and Thomas (2013), this particular theoretical framework focuses on describing the implication of complex structures of fear which are often available for the production of behavioral, physiological, and cognitive reactions through activation. Researchers have argued that belief in alterations concerning individuals and the society resulting from difficulties in dealing with the aftermath of traumatic experiences misinterpretation and incompetence. The emotional processing theory indicates that fear may be activated using associative linkages and associations that entail information regarding avoidance, escape or feared stimulus responses (Vickers, 2005). Fear can become a problematic and challenging concept whenever its intensity increases to a level adversely affect the normal functioning of an individual. In some cases, the persistence of fear may be worrying even it is not associated with clear signs of danger. In such instances, pathological or maladaptive structures of concern are highly likely to be experienced. The emotional processing theoretical framework holds most maladaptive systems are often left in place through chronic avoidance like dissociation and escape behavior.
The analysis by Rauch and Foa (2006) shows that the proposal by the emotional proposal theory in its application to the description of some of the etiological factors associated with PTSD indicates that exposure is capable of altering the association between different networks and fear stimulus. In this respect, it is critical to start by activating the network before encoding new information while considering its compatibility the content of fear. Remaining in contact with a stimulus of fear until the degree of anxiety reduces is crucial since it makes it more convenient to have the compatibility of information with fear stimulus through the encoding of information (Ehlers & Clark, 2015). For instance, an individual experiencing PTSD in connection with lengthy exposure to an obsession interacts with a situation that helps to discredit maladaptive beliefs regarding the significance of a ritual that attempts to keep harm away. The critical perspective presented by Gale, Abbey, and Thomas (2013) indicates that the major challenge associated with the emotional processing theory as it relates to PTSD is that individuals experiencing anxiety disorders tend to engage in different forms of avoidance or escape behaviors. To that extent, they often fail in their efforts to disconfirm structures of fear. Over time, such individuals usually continue with engagement in disruptive actions whenever they are overwhelmed by fear.
The argument advanced by this model indicates that any negative appraisals associated with traumatic events often result in the development of perspectives that depict the society as being dangerous or themselves as being incompetent in various ways. Such a situation may lead to a state of fear accompanied by misinterpretation and misunderstanding of circumstances. There are several critical maintaining factors linked to PTSD which include inadequate social support and coping strategies that are less helpful. In some instances, the coping strategies available for individuals facing PTSD may be regarded as being helpful while in actual sense they tend to exacerbate or prolong symptoms (Weston, 2014). To that extent, there will be social withdrawal, conscious suppression of the memories associated with trauma, substance use, and avoidance. One of the critical aspects that are normally considered in the cognitive theoretical framework of PTSD is cognitive restructuring (Gale, Abbey & Thomas, 2013). This aspect finds its basis on the theoretical identification and modification of unrealistic and catastrophic interpretation of traumatic experiences capable of resulting in symptom reduction. Different models have been able to place more emphasis on the significance of finding corrections to the cognitive distortions linked to the adaptive recovery of people experiencing traumatic events. In some situations, psychological experts tend to utilize cognitive therapy related to the PTSD cognitive model.
Ehlers and Clark (2015) observe that the cognitive model of PTSD is linked to a therapy that focuses on the modification of negative appraisals, finding solutions to interferences of autobiographical memories, development of cognitive strategies, and removal problematic behaviors. An assumption regarding the uniformity and events leading to trauma is usually influenced by reasonable speculations concerning the fundamental similarities existing among individuals with diverse experiences of traumatic events. Patients who have shown signs of PTSD are likely to respond and react to clinical interventions in different ways (Weston, 2014). Studies concerning the prevalence of being exposed to traumatic experiences as well as the PTSD prevalence have often been conducted, and the findings have been able to demonstrate variations from one region to another. Language development is believed to be particularly crucial during the early stages of the trauma as well as the resolution stages. Upon the examination of the features of the social environment surrounding individual assistance can be offered with a focus on addressing the stressed memories and other functions of the brain (Vickers, 2005). Researchers have managed to establish that the provision of clear identification, description, and explanation the process of considering issues off development and brain functionality among the people who are victims of PTSD. The role of society in the treatment, as well as the assessment of individuals suffering from PTSD, experience several challenges such as the tendency of coping with avoidance among others.
Conclusion
In summing up, it is clear that the focus on Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder usually involves the consideration of diagnostic criteria and various etiological factors described through theoretical frameworks namely Bio-psychosocial model, Emotional processing theory, and Cognitive model among others. PTSD condition may be grouped among some of the anxiety disorders that have increasingly been linked with domestic violence, natural disasters, and wars. Several neurobiological and psychological theoretical frameworks are discussed with the objective of describing and explaining characteristics, signs, and symptoms of PTSD. The consideration of the criteria for diagnostic relating to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder requires exposure to a stressful or traumatic event.
The evaluation of theoretical frameworks demonstrates the existence of various etiological factors that are associated with PTSD. Emotional processing theory holds that fear may be activated using associative linkages and associations that entail information regarding avoidance, escape or feared stimulus responses. Besides, most maladaptive systems are often left in place through chronic avoidance like dissociation and escape behavior. However, several challenges are associated with the emotional processing theory as it relates to PTSD in the sense that individuals experiencing anxiety disorders tend to engage in different forms of avoidance or escape behaviors. According to the cognitive theoretical framework, coping strategies available for individuals facing PTSD may be regarded as being helpful while in actual sense they tend to exacerbate or prolong symptoms. Individuals who have shown signs and symptoms of PTSD are likely to respond and react to clinical interventions in several ways. Studies concerning the prevalence of being exposed to traumatic experiences as well as the PTSD prevalence have always been conducted, and the findings have been able to point towards variations from one region to another.
References
Bromet, E., Karam, E., & Stein, D (2016). Population Prevalence of Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder. Trauma And Posttraumatic Stress Disorder , 95-109. doi:
10.1017/9781107445130.006
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. (2015). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour
Research And Therapy , 38 (4), 319-345. doi: 10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00123-0
Gale, L., Abbey, G., & Thomas, S. (2013). Emotional Processing Therapy for post-traumatic
stress disorder. Counselling Psychology Quarterly , 26 (3-4), 362-385. doi:
10.1080/09515070.2013.816840
Ophuis, R. H., Polinder, S., & Haagsma, J. A. (2018). Prevalence of post-traumatic stress
disorder, acute stress disorder, and depression following violence-related injury treated at the emergency department: a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry , 18 (1), 311.doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1890-9
Rauch, S., & Foa, E. (2006). Emotional Processing Theory (EPT) and Exposure Therapy for
PTSD. Journal Of Contemporary Psychotherapy , 36 (2), 61-65. doi: 10.1007/s10879
006-9008-y
Stein, D. J., Koenen, K. C., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2015). Epidemiology of posttraumatic
stress disorder: prevalence, correlates and consequences. Current opinion in
psychiatry , 28 (4), 307-11.
Vickers, B. (2005). Cognitive Model of the Maintenance and Treatment of Post-traumatic
Stress Disorder Applied to Children and Adolescents. Clinical Child Psychology And
Psychiatry , 10 (2), 217-234. doi: 10.1177/1359104505051212
Weston C. S. (2014). Posttraumatic stress disorder: a theoretical model of the hyperarousal
subtype. Frontiers in psychiatry , 5 , 37. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00037
