Rene Descartes argued that sound is the basis of music; its objective is to arouse different emotions and please the audience 1 . This statement offers a general and useful framework for the interpretation and comprehension of Baroque music. In the Baroque era (1600–1750), music composers started placing greater emphasis on the dramatic power of music for the expression of various passions as well as to elicit the desired emotional responses from audiences. Therefore, the doctrine of affections had emerged as an elaborate model founded on the notion that passions could be expressed through their external audible or visible signs 2 . The model drew its relevance from elements that had a long history before its development, but gained much prominence during the mid-1600s among French scholar critics connected to the Court of Versailles before it become the focal point of European art. However, it is notable that Hermann Kretzschmar, Arnold Schering, and Harry Goldschmidt who were all German musicologists of the era first coined the term itself for the description of the aesthetic theory.
While the doctrine of affections started to gain popularity, the expression of different emotions such as pity, rage, joy, sorrow, and love became the primary elements of the compositions of the Baroque era. Descartes also informs in the Compendium of Music that sound has two main attributes, which are the variations in tension from low to high and the variations in duration or time 3 . Descartes comprehended that the communication of the affects to audiences through sound demanded strategic organization involving the elements of music such as pitch and time, which culminated in an apparently formulaic but indispensable approach to the composition of music. Resultantly, the doctrine of affections controlled the composition of music in the Baroque period through the musical features of tempo, key, and intervals 4 .
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The practice of placing meaning to music through emotions has its history in ancient Greece as well as the teachings of the temperaments, which included phlegmatic, melancholic, choleric, and sanguine 5 . Each of the four temperaments was associated with a different affection. Specifically, the sanguine temperament was defined by joy and love, fury and anger defined the choleric temperament, pain and sorrow characterized the melancholic temperament, while moderate joy and peacefulness defined the phlegmatic temperament 6 . Greek philosophy holds that people are moved to such affections by the change in the balance of among the four temperaments. Allegedly, music had the capacity to arouse the affections within persons for the production of the purposed emotional responses 7 . The approach to the provocation of the responses emerged as a useful topic among the composers of the Baroque period, and resultantly spurred the creation of the doctrine of affections. In specificity, interval was one of the tools that the Baroque composers used in the expression of emotions within their musical pieces.
The correct usage of intervals for affective functions became a primary issue of interest for Johann Mattheson, a 17 th -century German composer who lived between 1681 and 1764. The dedication of the composer to study the emotional expression via instrumental music resulted in a rich group of theoretical works and guides to composition of music 8 . For example, one of the works of Mattheson, Der Vollkommene Capellmeister completed in 1739, has an in-depth outline of intervals of melody and their affective objectives. For instance, according to Mattheson, a minor seventh represents supplication, a fifth boldness, a third mourning, and a major third is a representation of liveliness 9 . The comprehension of intervals and their affective functions by Mattheson caused a significant influence among composers of his time and has been a useful reference for composers in generations that followed.
Mattheson used his comprehension of intervals in the explanation of the manner in which music could develop specific passions. Specifically, he posited that joy was an expansion of individuals’ vital spirits, which required that it follow naturally, and sensibly that such an affect is best expressed through large and expanded intervals 10 . In Mattheson’s perspective, was that joyful music was supposed to be marked by wide intervals. He also suggested that for the conveying of sadness, it was necessary that composers use the narrowest intervals. His works also proceeded to describe anger, hope, love, and several other affects, including the manner in which they are best communicated using musical intervals. The guidelines laid down by Mattheson are neither exclusive nor compressive, but they have been affirmed in a significant portion of Baroque compositions.
As much as Mattheson was a profound advocate of the doctrine of affections using Baroque music, the works of individual composers of such music itself popularized the emotional and rhetorical purposes of the music. For instance, Johann Sebastian Bach was one such composer. In a detailed analysis of Kruezstab Cantata, one of Bach’s popular works, Georg Corall analyzes the emotional content of the vocal libretto and the instrumental music accompanying it 11 . The theme of the cantata was the journey of carrying the cross of Christians. The text highlights went on a sea voyage by boat, and that the Kruezstab, was an instrument used in navigation 12 . Therefore, the music and the text are a depiction of a voyage by sea that ends in a strong yearning for death so that the Christians can see Jesus in heaven 13 . As Corall explains in the opening aria of the cantata, the choice of large intervals by Bach in his first five notes is a representation of the joyful wishes to carry the cross that would lead through the burdens of life to happiness 14 . As much as the word painting and the text itself give the primary idea of the composition, the musical intervals are an expression of emotional color and a revelation of the affects of elation and joy, which its composer purposed to evoke to the target audience. Within the second movement, as Corall notes, Bach uses arpeggios that move quickly (minor and major thirds) for the indication of affections for excitement and anticipations while the ship sails over the rolling sea waves as indicated in figure 1 15 . The entire composition represents the emphasis by Bach of constant intervals for the expression of affections of joy, pleasure, and contentment. Such a use of intervals shows conformity to Mattheson’s guide and appears to appropriate for the conveying of Bach’s intended affects.
Figure 1 : Intervals in Bach’s Kruezstab Cantata adapted from 16
It is imperative noting that the doctrine of affections also controlled instrumental texture in compositions. Dan Wilson asserted that at the time of Bach, vocal music compositions sought the expression of the text, and that in turn, instrumental pieces mediated on a single affection through restricting themselves to a single short and clearly defined pattern 17 . This issue became a real problem to composers for the fact that they could not just depend on word or text painting for the expression of their purposed emotions. Instead, the composers were supposed to communicate such emotions using their music alone. One Baroque composer, Arcangelo Corelli accomplished this aspiration successfully.
Composing music as a renowned violinist in Italy, Corelli was involved in the production of concerti-grossi, trio-sonats, and sonatas. He demonstrated the capacity of the instrument to communicate ideas and create an emotional appeal to the audience 18 . For example, Corelli develops the intervals of the melodic lines in his Concerto Grosso that he plays in D Major in ways that develop peace and joy affects. The opening melody of the first violin has a succession of octave leaps that were associated with joy affects by Mattheson 19 . The opening also have a three-note motive made up of constant and small intervals that culminate in the octave leaps as indicated in figure 2. Mattheson indicated in his cited works that such a pattern was a representation of pleasantness and tenderness. The remaining part of the piece proceeds to build on the defined pattern and express convincingly the passions of contentment and joyfulness. The understanding of the doctrine of affections as well as the purpose of musical intervals by Mattheson revealed the purposed affect in the instrumental works of Corelli without lyrics or text.
Figure 2 : intervals in instrumental compositions of Corelli adapted from 20
C.P.E. Bach, the son of Sebastian Bach was also involved in the use of intervals in the expression of emotions in his many compositions. Sarah McNulty noted in an article on the affections C.P.E’s Flute and Continuo Sonatas the various ways in which he used musical elements in the conveying of his targeted emotions. McNulty noted that C.P.E utilized the pathopoeia, a vehement or intense affection mostly through chromatic passing notes 21 . The series of half steps used by the composer produced a violent and enraged mood that depicted the wrath of God at man’s failure to keep his commandments 22 . As opposed to his father who utilized intervals in the expression of excitement and joy, C.P.E. Bach used the same musical element in the expression of fury and anger. Even while there was no universal approach to writing interval, it appears that all composers of the Baroque era comprehended the proper usage of intervals for the communication of various affections, and philosophers such as Mattheson fueled the adoption of this practice.
The choice of signature also controlled Baroque musical compositions. Jean-Phillippe Rameau (1683-1764), one the major Baroque musical figures studied key signatures in relation to heir affective objectives thoroughly 23 . In the description of his legacy, Charles Paul noted that though Rameau was France’s most popular and greatest composer of the 18 th century, he mostly cherished to be counted among the scientific elect 24 . The musician was a renowned operatic composer and a properly trained musician, but his investigation of the musical affects as well the mathematic principles behind them ensured that he earned the desired reputation. For instance, his 1722 composition, Traité de l’harmonie, describes the popular affective usage of the different keys and offers his professional idea on the issue. Specifically, Rameau provides:
The key of b or f-minor is suitable for songs of melancholy; f or c minor is appropriate for laments or gentleness. The minor modes in either e, b, g, or d keys are apt for songs of gentleness and sweetness. Significance and grandeur could be best expressed by the keys of either E, A, or D. Either E or G is appropriate for both happy and tender songs. Either B or F-flat is appropriate for furies, tempests, and related subjects. The keys of either A, D, or C in their major modes is suitable for songs of joy and mirth 25 .
Therefore, Rameau’s comprehensive analysis of the key signatures as well as their affective objectives summarized the popular usage of keys by Baroque composers as well as specified his perception concerning the most appropriate keys for the communication of emotions.
It is worthwhile noting that not all of the philosophers and composers of the Baroque era agreed on the standard approach to the association of keys with different affections. Many other composers and philosophers opined that each of the keys would be utilized in the expression of a variety of affections as opposed to the idea of one particular key 26 . In fact, Mattheson indicated that the suggestions he had made concerning the keys were only his opinions 27 . He reinforced the usefulness of the key signature in the creation of affects, which he does through the dedication of a whole chapter of his Der Vollkommene Capellmeister for the presentation of his affective perceptions of every key. However, he suggests that his ideas were mere opinions and that they were to be treated as nothing better than a working summary. As much as there were variant perceptions of the connection between keys and the emotions they evoked, it remains evident that the doctrine of affections produced a profound influence on the key choices of the Baroque composers for the production of affects and passions that they intended. Rodney Farnsworth insisted that the keys’ affective properties were critical for invention and to creativity, and that the composers themselves believed that such techniques influence the listeners 28 . Antonio Vivaldi is another prominent composer of the Baroque period who used the doctrine of affections in the selection of his keys.
Vivaldi, in his composition called Le Quattro Stagioni, describes the four seasons of the year in four solo violin concertos. Each of the four compositions related to one season. The choice of the keys was made strategically such that it depicted the emotions and affections that are associated with the four seasons. For instance, he chose F major for Autumn because it was the natural key of corni da Caccia that was conventionally with bucolic and hunting settings 29 . He chose E major for spring, which was not a common key for most of compositions. However, in the perception of Rameau, E major was suitable for the expression of magnificence and grandeur, which was appropriate for a season of year filled with growth and life 30 . F minor was used for winter, which was described by Mattheson as relaxed and mild, yet heavy and profound with fatal anxiety and despair at the same time 31 . It is quite moving, Mattheson argues, in its magnificent expression of helpless, black melancholy that causes the listeners to shudder occasionally. Lastly, the composer hose the G minor key for the summer season, which was interpreted as an implication of threat and anxiety. As it emerges, the entire compositions contain two movements in the minor keys and two in the major ones, which is a balance to the four temperaments. Therefore, Vivaldi understood the connection between the key signatures and the doctrine of affections clearly, and the connection defines his works as described.
J.S. Bach’s work, St. Mathew’s Passion, is another example of the effect of the doctrine of affections on the choice of keys. The work interweaves the Gospel of Mathew and the crucifixion of Christ using coral movements and an accompaniment of instruments. In this composition, Bach utilized the E minor key in the presentation and illustration of the story of crucifixion 32 . According to Eric Chafe, the E-minor passages were a coincidence with the stages in the crucifixion, from capture to the end 33 . Mattheson had asserted that whatever an individual may do with the key of E minor, it always remains pensive profound and a sad expression of grief. He also noted that however, some chances for consolation remained. From this interpretation, it is clear that according to Bach, the story of Christ’s death presented grief, but still gave glimpses of hope that he would resurrect.
Close to the end of the Baroque era, Johann Joachim Quantz, a German flutist, came up with his own principles of the connection between key signatures and the passions 34 . This composer restricted the affects to the serious and pathetic, majesty, melancholy, liveliness/gaiety, flattery, and boldness. As much as he did not follow the already described approach, Quantz underscored the significance of key signatures in the communication of affects to audiences. It follows, therefore, that whatever the approach of the composers and the philosophers, the concept of doctrine of affections influence music a great deal, and the inner meanings of musical pieces could be understood better through understanding the connection between key signatures and the different affects they communicated to their audiences.
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