What makes us human ( Homo sapiens )? The challenge of cognitive cross-species comparison. Boesch, Christophe. Information Journal of Comparative Psychology 121.3 (August 2007): 227-240.
In this article, the authors study two key theoretical models that have controlled the urge for specifically cognitive abilities of human which include: a develop mentalist model emphasizing the need of social and environmental conditions, as well as a predominant model in comparative and experimental psychology. The deterministic model proposes the impact of social and environmental conditions to be minimal. The researchers further enlightens us that as a result, most human assertions regarding human cognitive exclusivity are founded on comparisons of the White middle class of Westerner humans referred to as homo sapiens with the captive chimpanzees also known as pan troglodytes (Dolins et al, 2014).
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Nonetheless, according to the article, humans are superior than White middle class westerners, as well as chimpanzees are superior to captives. But, a further revelation in the article is that, a review of some information accessible on varied populations of captive chimpanzees and humans state that only the forecasts of the develop mentalist model are sustained. Further, sequential biases are usually presented in experiment protocols when doing a comparison between humans and apes that further lay doubts on comparison of species. In the article, the author states that, only with the focus of within-species population variances in the cognitive realms and the usage of compatible experimental methods will an unbiased understanding of the varied cognitive capabilities between species materialize. Thus, it will need a change in the theoretical model employed by majority in the comparative and experimental psychology.
An evaluation of the article highlights that, to understand the difference of humans from other species, explorers need to compare the cognitive capabilities among human beings and other species with the specific focus on humans with their closest relatives, that is, African early apes. Nonetheless, the comparative models used in most psychological research are of uncertain value for key reasons: There has not been the variation within species into consideration and methods of experiment have varied sequentially between species. Also, the article informs that humans need a stage throughout their up-bringing of which they encounter changing conditions for any experiences based on capability to develop. Further, when making comparisons of persons that have encountered varied ecological paths is likely per definition results to key differences that may not indicate species variations. Lastly, the article states that making comparisons on cognitive abilities of varied species based on evolutionary model will allow understanding that cognitive abilities may not be wholly the same in the entire member of a species. Second, cognitive abilities are influenced by the living conditions. Third, explorers need to deliberate in terms of difference in cognitive abilities.
Describing, explaining, and optimizing within-individual change across the life span: A relational developmental systems perspective.
According to the article, the aim of developmental science is to define, explicate and enhance transformations within humans and variations between persons throughout the lifespan. Modern developmental science is outlined in the foremost by systems of developmental models, ideologies that stress on the transformation throughout life takes place through shared controlled relations between persons and their contexts. The authors state that the systems have essential consequences for research questions, methods and applications focused on upholding positive human development as well as social justice throughout life (Lerner et al, 2013).
According to the author, developmental science is in pursuit to define, explain and optimize changes within individuals and the variations between individuals throughout life. Nonetheless, the aim of description, justification and optimization are likely to be established before the instantiations of the arena-in the psychology of a child, then in psychology of development. Modern development scientists tackle the three objectives in different ways than as was in the past. The article states that whether exploring infancy, or childhood, or adolescence or adulthood and the aging quotas of life, modern study in human development endeavors to clarify how jointly influential relationships between persons and their contexts offer the foundation for personal behavior and development such as reciprocal, bidirectional, synergistic and used relations. Currently, developmental scientists aim at systematic as well as sequential changes in the course of the relationships and on the mainstream of multiple features of the person such as cognitive, physiological, motivational, emotional as well as behavioral characteristics. In addition, they focus on multiple ecological levels of human development, varying from biological level to socio-cultural and the historical levels which encompass natural and designed environments.
An evaluation of the article brings an assurance to the future developmental scientists, whether in sociology, psychology, education, medicine, biology or economics since they will be able to define, explain and enhance the human life course. In the coming days, developmental scientists will stress a demanding research which is based on theory prediction on the shared influential relationships among persons and processes of ecology, as well as the embodiment of humans within the complex and rich ecology of human life-span. Methodological advances regarding how best to research the relationship developmental mechanism, in ways excellently sensitive to place, time and diversity of human will uphold fields of active research.
The role of immaturity in human development
The article informs the reader that the likelihood that the immature behaviors as well as cognition in infants and young children are occasionally adaptive is researched and defined in terms of evolutionary concept. According to the author, it is debated that immaturity due to development had an adoptive characteristic in evolution and maintains to have adoptive characteristic in the development of humans. The characteristic of retardation in development of humans is described and an insight assessment of the relationships between brain plasticity and the extended childhood of humans. Further, the article examines the neoteny behavior as demonstrated by play as are some possible adaptive features of perception and cognition of infants and that play a role in limiting the amount of information they process. Features of cognitive immaturity throughout early childhood that are likely to possess certain adoptive values that are contemporaneous are also assessed in the article. The article suggests that perceiving immaturity as occasionally adoptive to the child who is developing changes how children as well as their development are perceived (Kagitcibasi, 2013).
This article further classifies the idea of developmental immaturity in the view of theory of evolution and show how the idea can be used to realize a better understanding of the development of human. I have learnt that the key proposition of this article is that development due to immaturity can at some point be adaptive and has been chosen in evolution for the value of survival it gave the young organism. Certain, though not all features of developmental immaturity can uphold the adaptive characteristics to modern human beings. When an individual considers the kind of the physical world with regards to a child of any specific age lives, and the role he has to master, some qualities of immaturity can offer advantages as opposed to disadvantages. However, the author does not wish to indicate that all features of immaturity in development are adaptive. Several features of a long lasting youth can be necessary associates of other adaptive transformation and can themselves possess adaptive roles. Moreover, they are supposed to be maladaptive and not to the extent of causing extinction.
My analysis and evaluation of the article reveals that in suggesting that educators and psychologists perceive immature behavior of children and forms for their conceivable advantages, I do not propose this perspective as admiration for immaturity. Further, I do not propose that the immature thinking of children and their behavior are supposed to be extended. However, it is enticing to take a romanticized perception of childhood with regards to being careless and innocent. Thus, I am not basing my argument for artificial elongated of youth by pampering children. According to the article, adults in a community have the responsibility to see that children develop to be responsible and independent individual. The prolonged immaturity is damaging and the goal of development is maturity.
Is psychology relevant to global human development issues? Experience from Turkey
The article highlights that psychology entails a lot to provide towards efforts of human development globally. In an attempt to achieve the objective, we must appreciate psychology as a need for the establishment of solutions relating to development of humans and assuming the incorporated attitude in its address. Such an attitude is associated with the usage of comparative standards as assessed within more particular field of human development. The standards are a reflection of aspirations of a society toward development both in general and in their attempt to achieving possibility of human to cope with the changing lifestyle’s demands specifically. Schooling and reading presume this essentiality with regards to the context. The article has employed longitudinal intervention as a project to determine ways in which psychology is relevant to the development of humans’ issues (Bjorklund and Beers, 2016)
According to the author, development of human for most psychologists means development of child or development of lifespan. The analysis is based on a unit which is individual in either case. Nonetheless, the idea of development of human is today being used in a totally varied manner by the UN agencies, policy makers, planners as well as other scientists of social studies. The new use of development of human emanate from the long term acknowledgement that the development of a society cannot be perceived in a single economic term, for instance, Gross Domestic Product. Therefore, there is the need to incorporate other indicators that focus on human factors.
An evaluation of the article enlightens readers of a research experience and applications that have emanated from its process have emphasized the certainty in the viability of such an integrative model that combines human development comparative standards with culturally complex endogenous idealizations of well-being.
Summary
All the four research articles are similar in that they have elaborately focused on human development. The articles were studying two key theoretical models that have controlled the urge for specifically cognitive abilities of human which include: a develop mentalist model emphasizing the need of social and environmental conditions, as well as a predominant model in comparative and experimental psychology. A further study involved developmental science which is to define, explicate and enhance transformations within humans and variations between persons throughout the lifespan. Moreover, the articles inform the reader that the likelihood that immature behaviors as well as cognition in infants and young children are occasionally adaptive is researched and defined in terms of evolutionary concept. Last but not least, the articles studied what psychology entails for instance, to provide towards efforts of human development globally.
The development theory I found and that were applicable were two key theoretical models that have controlled the urge for specifically cognitive abilities of human which include: a develop mentalist model emphasizing the need of social and environmental conditions, as well as a predominant model in comparative and experimental psychology. The lifespan perspective may provide a way of better understanding by adults in a community having the responsibility to see that children develop to be responsible and independent individuals. The prolonged immaturity is damaging and the goal of development is maturity.
References
Bjorklund, D. F., & Beers, C. (2016). The adaptive value of cognitive immaturity: Applications of evolutionary developmental psychology to early education. In Evolutionary Perspectives on Child Development and Education (pp. 3-32). Springer International Publishing.
Dolins, F. L., Klimowicz, C., Kelley, J., & Menzel, C. R. (2014). Using virtual reality to investigate comparative spatial cognitive abilities in chimpanzees and humans. American journal of primatology , 76 (5), 496-513.
Kagitcibasi, C. (2013). Family, self, and human development across cultures: Theory and applications . Routledge.
Lerner, R. M., Agans, J. P., DeSouza, L. M., & Gasca, S. (2013). Describing, explaining, and optimizing within-individual change across the life span: A relational developmental systems perspective. Review of General Psychology , 17 (2), 179.
