Drug addiction is an epidemic that has challenged the survival of humanity over time. The epidemic has reached an unprecedented high continues to threaten the lives of millions of individuals globally due to the nature of harm it causes the societies. The popularity of drug varies from one country to another and the analysis form the United Nations shows significant problems with drug abuse in each continent where drug problems in countries range from the misuse of narcotics to other types of drugs. Many arguments have been presented on the use of psychoactive substances and their effects on human behavior. While the assessment on the need for drugs and substances describes their ability to relieve symptoms of certain disorders such as mental illnesses, other consequences have been seen as sources of harm to individuals and societies at large. Others have been observed to induce pleasure, increase energy in the body, relieve pain, lead to chronic illnesses and on extreme cases cause death.
Evolutionary psychology approach to drug addiction aims at identifying the reason behind the continuous use and abuse of drugs despite their harmful effect on the societies. From an evolutionary perspective, drug use and addiction has emerged throughout human evolution and has an underlying significance that goes beyond the problem of addiction itself. Evolutional studies show that drug abuse has its origin on the biology, psychology and social influences that the society has been subjected to over time. Thus this study will use an evolutionary aspect that evaluates the evolution of the human brain and the effect of ancient plants. It seeks to bring an understanding of the implications of drug addiction and how it has affected the human brain.
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The study will establish the causes and effect of addiction to society to discover the root cause of the problem and engage in preventive measures contrary to other studies that concentrate on the issue through a diagnosis of the symptoms. The exploration from an evolutionary perspective is crucial as it differs from other different approaches in terms of drug addiction diagnosis prevention and treatment. It provides a better understanding due to its assessment of the relationship between evolution, personality development, behavior and the use of drugs in society. The goal of this study is to examine the evolution and origin of drug addiction by studying the fundamental causes.
The approach will provide an in-depth insight as other studies have solely relied on the analysis of physiological signs ignoring the underlying causes, and as a result, the drug epidemic has continued to increase. Evaluating only the symptoms of addiction have led to the achievement of treatment but has failed in the identification of suitable measures which can be used to reduce the physical dependence on drugs. While addressing the symptoms, the approach uses a single aspect which makes the readjustment of the body to its initial state before the addiction the primary goal. However, it is essential to consider not only the physiological aspect of addiction by addressing the problem holistically by seeking to find treatment.
Drug addiction represents a subordinate behavior which is produced by more significant psychological and biological inducements. Therefore the evolutionary perspective addresses the issue of drug addiction by evaluating the individual’s developmental attachment, pharmacological mechanisms and social influencers such as the effects of social dominance, inequality and dependence (Hagen et al., 2009). Evolution argues that individual develop attachment from environmental influences. The argument presented is that factors such as the presence or lack of parental care can lead to vulnerability and cause the children to adopt drug addiction tendencies. The three main components of drug addiction discussed by evolutionary perspective present the belief that the use of drugs is motivated by their ability to bring healing which increases the motivation of use leading to misuse and addiction. Drugs are assumed to improve fitness and viability which affect the chemical changes in the human emotions influencing behavior.
Summary of theory and research
Various methods and studies have been presented in the discussion of drug addiction in society by tracing its evolvement.
Evolutionary Pursuit of natural rewards
Berridge and Kringel proposed the evolutional reward systems which is associated with its linkage to the brain. The reward model suggests that dopamine produced in the orbitofrontal cortex of the brain enhances the ability to learn and pursue a purpose single-mindedly. The model proposes that behaviors and individual actions are guided by the desire for good things in life. The evolutionary reward model, therefore, explains drug use in society due to the pleasurable experiences (Hagen et al., 2009). The proponents of this model propose a strong relationship between humans and plants which contain psychoactive substances (Nesse & Berridge, 1997). They argue that the link provides adaptations to the chemicals present in plants such as serotonin and dopamine and are demanded by the body and achieved through consumption to provide the necessary chemicals.
The dependency is related to the development of drug addiction in the idea that humans have evolved to develop specific motivation for drug use. According to (Hagen et al., 2009), the demand and attraction towards drug and the consistent use is therefore motivated by the pleasurable experiences. The theory also explain drug addictions in terms of the rewards obtained where drugs generate positive emotions and alleviate negative emotional states experienced by humans (Nesse & Berridge, 1997). The research indicates that drug abuse is as a result of the creation of signals which communicate to the brain the great benefits accrued as a result of drug use (Hagen et al., 2009). The analysis argues that the effect on the mind is achieved due to the natural reward pathway present. As a result, the use of all drugs with a specific impact activate the pathway and directly and indirectly increase the level of dopamine in the body.
Brain evolution
The evolution of the brain system has been closely linked with drug addiction. The effect of brain evolution on drug addiction is considered a byproduct; thus the development of the brain has increased fitness through chemical signals which are perceived by the body as emotions (Sullivan & Hagen, 2002). The presence of emotions has helped the physiology and behavior of individuals to increase fitness. The evolutionary perspective views emotions as tools which were previously used as a mechanism in the natural selection (Nesse, 2002). The brain produces positive emotions such as excitement, motivation euphoria which direct an individual towards fitness.
On the other hand, negative emotions such as stress anxiety and pain are interpreted by the body as defense mechanisms which protect the body from threats and affect the body by increasing fitness (Sullivan & Hagen, 2002). (Sullivan & Hagen, 2002) Suggest that humans are driven by the brain to escape negative emotions as the body defining the body by suppressing the feelings. Naturally, humans are unprepared and lack the defences to deal with problems. The evolutions theory, therefore, argues that individuals who cannot suffer and deal with pain fail to physiological and behavioral defences and are prone to death. Research shows that personality disorders arise due to increased negative emotions in an individual such as stress, anxiety, fear, and pain (House et al., 2013). The brain has also evolved to view these problems as dangerous which leads to personality disorders. The studies, therefore, indicate that drugs are used to mask complications arising from the brain which develop from the ancient adaptive mechanism evolving from personality.
Life history theory
The theory addresses the risk factors for individual development of substance use behavior. The theory argues that though people are vulnerable to the development of substance use in society the chances of developing a disorder is unevenly distributed in the community (Dahl, 2004). The life history theory, therefore, highlights biological, psychological social and cultural factors which explain the difference of development of drug use and the risk. According to (Chambers et al., 2003) the theory ascertains that the prevalence of substance use in the society varies according to age, gender and demographic factors. The theory explains occurrences from an evolutionary perspective where it argues that crucial exchange takes place through the different development stages and are influenced by factors such as gender differences. The theory, therefore, offers an analogy that humans have the resources and ability to make decisions concerning the distribution of their efforts (Dahl, 2004). Humans may choose to invest in survival and growth by looking into the current and future reproductive prospects.
The theory applies to drug addicting which argues that young people and especially the young men are likely to invest and gain by engaging in risky behavior such as drug use (Chambers et al., 2003). Engaging in risky behavior at a young age is influenced by the developmental stages which determine the resources forcing the individual to participate in the competition for a mate, status and resources at young ages (Nestler, 2014). However, engagement in risky behavior will increase as age increases which allow the young men to develop into responsible men who develop intimate relationships attain resources and get children. On the other hand, women are less likely to engage in risky behavior as they would put their survival at risk in their inclination to parenting (Nesse, 2002).
(Dahl, 2004) Argues that theory arguments, therefore, claim that the chance that human undertake depends on environmental circumstances. Humans who live in impoverished and unpredictable environments are prone to engage in risky behavior. Such individuals interpret their environments as having more to gain than to lose by pursuing risky behaviors with immediate rewards (Nesse & Berridge, 1997). Thus they may engage in drug abuse as the potential dangerous behaviors leading to addiction when their prospects for long term survival are low. (Chambers et al., 2003) Shows that the risk of substance use is influenced by developmental differences where the most vulnerable groups likely to abuse drugs are those who live in dangerous places as they seek immediate rewards. The theory, therefore, ascertains that rewards and risks are not evenly distributed in the society which is seen on the drug addictions cases in different cultures.
Critical commentary
Strengths of the studies and theories
The theories and research discussed above describe the development of drug addiction from an evolutionary perspective. The findings are built in the expected rewards which lead to addictive behavior (Saah, 2005). The main argument of the theories and research is that the motivational-emotional rewards system have a significant influence on impulse control. Thus, the case is based on the following proven concepts which include
Based on the natural reward system, its application to drug addiction shows that drugs have been abused due to their ability to produce more powerful rewards than the customarily expected signal rewards.
The motivational- emotional rewards system applies to drug addiction concepts due to the specific pharmacological effects of the drug which is the disruption of the standard rewards system and produces excess incentives which encourage addiction.
Drugs have other physiological effects that differ from the typical natural reward system (Nesse, 2002). For example, drugs are known to produce aversive withdrawal effects on the individual which promote continued use leading to addiction.
Individuals in the societies are therefore subjected to a compulsive state due to the specific physiological effects impacted on the brain.
The analysis of evolutionary concepts, therefore, suggests high risks of drug addiction based on the specific type of stimuli and activities which results in behavioral addiction. The theory suggests that the risk of addiction will be higher when the event which in this case is drug use generates strong and more pleasurable emotional state (Saah, 2005). In this scenario, the concepts apply to the opening up of the motivational- emotional pathways.
Drug addiction or the activity stimulus is unique and uncontrolled by a specific mechanism. Thus addiction is compulsive but under less formal and informal forms of controls (Nesse, 2002). The nature of the addiction makes it hard to be controlled or self-regulated.
Weaknesses in the studies and theories
The discussed theories exhibit various weakness in their analysis. The evolutionary perspectives based on the pursuit of natural rewards fail to explain the current trends in society. Based on the explanations provided under the evolutionary perspective, the mechanisms involved in signaling the pursuit of natural reward in the standard setting should be adjusted to favor certain types of stimulus and activities over others. Under the evolutionary argument, humans should be more motivated to engage in activities which increase their survival and are favorable to their reproductive establishments (Saah, 2005). The evolutionists suggest that human being should pursue the needs related to food and sex. According to their analysis, their findings prepare the society to experience necessary activities such as eating and sexual behavior.
Thus, the most common addiction in the society should be those that involve the pursuit of natural rewards. However, in the natural societal setting food intake has been established as an activity controlled by the homeostasis as explained by biology and physical limitations constrain sexual behavior. Therefore, using the concept of natural rewards to describe drug addiction has a weakened approach as it fails to apply to the primary activities of food consumption and regulation activities which exists in society as normal activities that do not result in harm as in the case of drug addiction.
Secondly, the arguments provided by theorists and researchers lead to the belief that there exists a strong influence between the structure of the brain and natural section. Evolutionary analysis depicts the brain a not fully adapted to the use of psychoactive substances, and thus continued use leads to addition. According to them, addiction is as a result of chemical imbalances in the brain. However, arguments by (Sullivan & Hagen, 2002) show addiction as a biological adaptation to psychoactive substances through the discussion that the compulsive use of psychoactive substances emerged in the ancient times and was used as a human social practice as a method of relieving tension and discomfort.
Addiction in the theories and research has been linked to pleasurable rewards. However, the use of psychoactive substances in ancient times has been shown as a tool for fighting cold, hunger, fatigue, pain and scarcity of nutrients (Nestler, 2014). The pleasure argument has also been interpreted by the derivation of addictive drugs from plants and their use in gratification. The theory on brain evolution which suggests the importance of dopamine and serotonin in drug addiction has a weak approach as the studies fail to show the correlation between their deficit and decrease rationality in decision making as factors influencing addition (Krill et al., 2007). Other studies have shown that their deficiency works in collaboration with other social factors such as the social structure of the individual leading to addiction.
Application of concepts
The evolutionary concepts of the nature of drug addiction have impacted various sectors including clinical settings as well as the formation of public policies. In the clinical setting, evolutionary theories of drug addiction have led to an increased understanding of the functionality of neurochemicals and their role in addiction. The knowledge has affected psychological and social interventions such as the use of cognitive behavioral therapy (Nestler, 2014). The study has also enhanced positive contributions through the promotion of the pursuit of natural rewards in treatment and recovery incorporated in the aspects of friendships and community which prevent relapse of drug use by increasing the cost of drug use. The research has revealed the high vulnerability for adolescents and their susceptibility to drug use and addiction (Krill et al., 2007). The theories explanation on brain evolution increases the understanding and has helped communities in embracing the youth through the creation of favorable intervention policies instead of marginalizing them.
Ideas for future research
A possible direction for future research in evolutionary psychology in drug addiction include continued in-depth evaluation of psychoactive substance use as an adaptation form the natural selection process. There is a need for more insights and evidence that drug addiction in the modern society evolved from the structured mechanism of the brain to seek pleasure and how drugs help in the maintenance of life by causing chemical imbalances in the brain. There are various unanswered questions from the evolutional psychological perspective to drug abuse.
The analysis fails to answer the question of why drug addiction is a persistent problem in the current society despite the argument that psychoactive drugs were used as a means of maintaining past life in ancient times. Thus, the use of drugs in the modern society full of comfort compared to the tension, pain, stress and uncertainty of the ancestors is yet to be justified. Therefore, the next area of study of evolutionary psychology in the field of drug addiction should focus on providing evidence on the high susceptibility of humans to dependencies in modern times compared to ancient times. Future studies should approach drug addiction from a social perspective drawing insights from the fields of biology and psychology .
References
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